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Major Battles of Alexander's Asian Campaign ................................................................................................1

At the beginning of the spring he marched towards the Hellespont, entrusting the affairs of Macedonia and

Greece to Antipater. He led with him not much over 30,000 infantry together with lightarmed troops and

archers, and more than 5,000 cavalry. His march was past the lake Cercinitis, towards Amphipolis and the

mouths of the river Strymon. Having crossed this river he passed by the Pangaean moun tain, along the road

leading to Abdera and Maronea, Grecian cities built on the coast. Thence he arrived at the river Hebrus, and

easily crossed it. Thence he proceeded through Paetica to the river Melas, having crossed which he arrived at

Sestus, in twenty days altogether from the time of his starting from home. When he came to Elaeus he offered

sac rifice to Protesilaus upon the tomb of that hero, both for other reasons and because Protesilaus seemed to

have been the first of the Greeks who took part with Agamemnon in the expedition to Ilium to disembark in

Asia. The design of this sacrifice was that disembarking in Asia might be more fortunate to himself than that

it had been to Protesilaus. He then committed to Parmenio the duty of conveying the cavalry and the greater

part of the infantry across from Sestus to Abydus; and they crossed over in 160 triremes, besides many

trading vessels. The prevail ing account is that Alexander started from Elaeus and put into the Port of

Achaeans, that with his own hand he steered the general's ship across, and that when he was about the middle

of the channel of the Hellespont he sacrificed a bull to Poseidon and the Nereids, and poured forth a libation

to them into the sea from a golden goblet. They say also that he was the first man to step out of the ship in

full armour on the land of Asia, and that he erected altars to Zeus, the protector of people landing, to Athena,

and to Heracles, at the place in Europe whence he started, and at the place in Asia where he disembarked. It is

also said that he went up to Ilium and offered sacrifice to the Trojan Athena; that he set up his own panoply

in the temple as a votive offer ing, and in exchange for it took away some of the consecrated arms which had

been preserved from the time of the Trojan war. It is also said that the shieldbearing guards used to carry

these arms in front of him into the battles. A report also prevails that he offered sacrifice to Priam upon the

altar of Zeus the household god, deprecating the wrath of Priam against the progeny of Neoptolemus, from

When he went up to Ilium, Menoetius the pilot crowned him with a golden crown; after him Chares the

Athenian, coming from Sigeum, as well as certain others, both Greeks and natives, did the same. Alexander

then encircled the tomb of Achilles with a garland; and it is said that Hephaestion[1] decorated that of

Patroclus in the same way. There is indeed a report that Alexander pronounced Achilles fortunate in getting

Homer as the herald of his fame to posterity. And in truth it was meet that Alexander should deem Achilles

fortunate for this rea son especially; for to Alexander himself this privilege was wanting, a thing which was

not in accordance with the rest of his good fortune. His achievements have, therefore, not been related to

mankind in a manner worthy of the hero. Neither in prose nor in verse has any one suitably honoured him;

nor has he ever been sung of in a Iyric poem, in which style of poetry Hiero, Gelo, Thero, and many others

not at all comparable with Alexander, have been praised. Consequently Alex ander's deeds are far less known

than the meanest achievements of an tiquity. For instance, the march of the ten thousand with Cyrus up to

Persia against King Artaxerxes, the tragic fate of Clearchus and those who were captured along with him, and

the march of the same men down to the sea, in which they were led by Xenophon, are events much better

known to men through Xenophon's narrative than are Alexander and his achievements. And yet Alexander

neither accompanied another man's expedition, nor did he in flight from the Great King overcome those who

obstructed his march down to the sea. And, indeed, there is no other single individual among Greeks or

barbarians who achieved exploits so great or important either in regard to number or magni tude as he did.

This was the reason which induced me to undertake this history, not thinking myself incompetent to make

Alexander's deeds known to men. For whoever I may be, this I know about myself, that there is no need for

me to assert my name, for it is not unknown to men; nor is it needful for me to say what my native land and

family are, or if I have held any public office in my own country. But this I do assert, that this historical work

is and has been from my youth up, equivalent to native land, family, and public offices for me; and for this

reason I do not deem myself unworthy to rank among the first authors in the Greek language, if Alexander

From Ilium Alexander came to Arisbe, where his entire force had en camped after crossing the Hellespont;

and on the following day he came to Percote. On the next, passing by Lampsacus, he encamped near the river

Practius, which flows from the Idaean mountains and discharges itself into the sea between the Hellespont

and the Euxine Sea. Thence passing by the city of Colonae, he arrived at Hermotus. He now sent scouts

before the army under the command of Amyntas, son of Arr habaeus, who had the squadron of the

Companion cavalry which came from Apollonia, under the captain Socrates, son of Sathon, and four

squadrons of what were called scouts. In the march he despatched Panegorus, son of Lycagoras, one of the

Companions, to take possession of the city of Priapus, which was surrendered by the inhabitants.

The Persian generals were Arsames, Rheomithres, Petines, Niphates, and with them Spithridates, viceroy of

Lydia and Ionia, and Arsites, governor of the Phrygia near the Hellespont. These had encamped near the city

of Zeleia with the Persian cavalry and the Grecian mercen aries. When they were holding a council about the

state of affairs, it was reported to them that Alexander nad crossed (the Hellespont). Memnon, the Rhodian,

advised them not to risk a conflict with the Macedonians, since they were far superior to themselves in

infantry, and Alexander was there in person; whereas Darius was not with them. He advised them to advance

and destroy the fodder, by trampling it down under their horses' hoofs, to burn the crops in the country, and

not even to spare the very cities. "For then Alexander," said he, "will not be able to stay in the land from lack

of provisions." It is said that in the Per sian conference Arsites asserted that he would not allow a single

house belonging to the people placed under his rule to be burned, and that the other Persians agreed with

Arsites, because they had a suspicion that Memnon was deliberately contriving to protract the war for the pur

13. Meantime Alexander was advancing to the river Granicus, with his army arranged for battle, having

drawn up his heavyarmed troops in a double phalanx, leading the cavalry on the wings, and having or dered

that the baggage should follow in the rear. And Hegelochus at the head of the cavalry, who were armed with

the long pike, and about 500 of the lightarmed troops, was sent by him to reconnoitre the proceed ings of the

enemy. When Alexander was not far from the river Granicus, some of his scouts rode up to him at full speed

and announced that the Persians had taken up their position on the other side of the Granicus, drawn up ready

for battle. Thereupon Alexander arranged all his army with the intention of fighting. Then Parmenio

approached him and spoke as follows, "I think, O king, that it is advisable for the present to pitch our camp

on the bank of the river as we are. For I think that the enemy, being much inferior to us in infantry, will not

dare to pass the night near us, and therefore they will permit the army to cross the ford with ease at daybreak.

For we shall then pass over before they can put themselves in order of battle; whereas, I do not think that we

can now attempt the operation without evident risk, because it is not pos sible to lead the army through the

river with its front extended. For it is clear that many parts of the stream are deep, and you see that these

banks are very steep and in some places abrupt. Therefore the enemy's cavalry, being formed into a dense

square, will attack us as we emerg~ from the water in broken ranks and in column, in the place where we are

weakest. At the present juncture the first repulse would be difficult to retrieve, as well as perilous for the

But to this Alexander replied, "I recognize the force of these arguments, O Parmenio; but I should feel it a

disgrace, if, after crossing the Hellespont so easily, this paltry stream (for with such an appellation he made

light of the Granicus) should bar our passage for a moment. I consider that this would be in accordance

neither with the fame of the Macedonians nor with my own eagerness for encountering danger. Moreover, I

think that the Persians will regain courage, in the belief that they are a match in war for Macedonians, since

up to the present time they have suffered no defeat from me to warrant the fear they enter tain."

14. Having spoken thus, he sent Parmenio to takc the command upon the left wing, while he led in person on

the right. And at the head of the right wing he placed the following officers: Philotas, son of Par menio, with

the cavalry Companions, the archers, and the Agrianian javelinmen; and Amyntas, son of Arrhabaeus, with

the cavalry carry ing the long pike, the Paeonians, and the squadron of Socrates, was posted near Philotas.

Close to these were posted the Companions who were shieldbearing infantry under the command of

Nicanor, son of Parmenio. Next to these the brigade of Perdiccas, son of Orontes; then that of Coenus, son of

Polemocrates; then that of Craterus, son of Alex ander; then that of Amyntas, son of Andromenes; finally, the

men com manded by Philip, son of Amyntas. On the left wing first were arranged the Thessalian cavalry,

commanded by Calas, son of Harpalus; next to these, the cavalry of the Grecian allies, commanded by Philip,

son of Mene!aus; next to these the Thracians, commanded by Agatho. Close to these were the infantry, the

brigades of Craterus, Meleager, and Philip, reaching as far as the centre of the entire line.

The Persian cavalry were about 20,000 in number, and their infantry, consisting of Grecian mercenaries, fell

a little short of the same number. They had extended their horse along the bank of the river in a long phalanx,

and had posted the infantry behind the cavalry, for the ground above the bank was steep and commanding.

They also marshalled dense squadrons of cavalry upon that part of the bank where they ob served Alexander

himself advancing against their left wing; for he was conspicuous both by the brightness of his arms and by

the respectful attendance of his staff. Both armies stood a long time at the margin of the river, keeping quiet

from dread of the result; and profound silence was observed on both sides. For the Persians were waiting till

the Macedonians should step into the ford, with the intention of attacking ~hem as they emerged. Alexander

leaped upon his steed, ordering those about him to follow, and exhorting them to show themselves valiant

men. He then commanded Amyntas, son of Arrhabaeus, to make the first rush into the river at the head of the

skirmishing cavalry, the Paeonians, and one regiment of infantry; and in front of these he had placed

Ptolemy, son of Philip, in command of the squadron of Socrates, which body of men indeed on that day

happened to have the lead of all the cavalry force. He himself led the right wing with sounding of trumpets,

and the men raising the warcry to Enyalius[2]. He entered the ford, keeping his line always extended

obliquely in the direction in which the stream turned itself aside, in order that the Persians might not fall upon

him as he was emerging from the water with his men in column, but that he himself might, as far as

15. The Persians began the contest by hurling missiles from above in the direction where the men of Amyntas

and Socrates were the first to reach the bank, some of them casting javelins into the river from their

commanding position on the bank, and others stepping down along the flatter parts of it to the very edge of

the water. Then ensued a vio lent struggle on the part of the cavalry, on the one side to emerge from the river,

and on the other to prevent the landing. From the Persians there was a terrible discharge of darts; but the

Macedonians fought with spears. The Macedonians, being far inferior in number, suffered severely at the first

onset, because they were obliged to defend them selves from the river, where their footing was unsteady, and

where they were below the level of their assailants; whereas the Persians were fighting from the top of the

bank, which gave them an advantage, es pecially as the best of the Persian horse had been posted there.

Memnon himself, as well as his sons, were running every risk with these; and the Macedonians who first

came into conflict with the Persians, though they showed great valour, were cut down by them, except those

who retreated to Alexander, who was now approaching. For the king was already near, leading with him the

right wing. He made his first assault upon the Persians at the place where the whole mass of their horse and

the lead ers themselves were posted; and around him a desperate conflict raged, during which one rank of the

Macedonians after another easily kept on crossing the river. Though they fought on horseback, it seemed

more like an infantry than a cavalry battle; for they struggled for the mas tery, horses being jammed with

horses and men with men, the Mace donians striving to drive the Persians entirely away from the bank and to

force them into the plain, and the Persians striving to obstruct their landing and to push them back again into

the river. At last Alexander's men began to gain the advantage, both through their superior strength and

military discipline, and because they fought with spears whose shafts were made of cornelwood, whereas

Then indeed, Alexander's spear being broken to shivers in the con flict, he asked Aretis, one of the royal

guards, whose duty it was to as sist the king to mount his horse, for another spear. But this man's spear had

also been shivered while he was in the thickest of the struggle, and he was conspicuous fighting with the half

of his broken spear. Show ing this to Alexander, he bade him ask some one else for one. Then Demaratus, a

man of Corinth, one of his personal Companions, gave him his own spear; which he had no sooner taken than

seeing Mithri dates, the soninlaw of Darius, riding far in front of the others, and leading with him a body

of cavalry arranged like a wedge, he himself rode on in front of the others, and hitting at the face of

Mithridates with his spear, struck him to the ground. But hereupon, Rhoesaces rode up to Alexander and hit

him on the head with his scimitar, breaking off a piece of his helmet. But the helmet broke the force of the

blow. This man also Alexander struck to the ground, hitting him in the chest through the breastplate with his

lance. And now Spithridates from be hind had already raised aloft his scimitar against the king, when Clitus,

son of Dropidas, anticipated his blow, and hitting him on the arm, cut it off, scimitar and all. Meantime the

horsemen, as many as were able, kept on securing a landing in succession all down the river, and were

16. The Persians themselves, as well as their horses, were now being struck on their faces with the lances

from all sides, and were being re pulsed by the cavalry. They also received much damage from the light

armed troops who were mingled with the cavalry. They first began to give way where Alexander himself was

braving danger in the front. When their centre had given way, the horse on both wings were also naturally

broken through, and took to s.peedy flight. Of the Persian cavalry only about I,000 were killed; for Alexander

did not pursue them far, but turned aside to attack the Greek mercenaries, the main body of whom was still

remaining where it was posted at first. This they did rather from amazement at the unexpected result of the

struggle than from any steady resolution. Leading the phalanx against these, and ordering the cavalry to fall

upon them from all sides, he soon completely surrounded them and cut them up, so that none of them escaped

except such as might have concealed themselves among the dead bodies. About 2,000 were taken prisoners.

The following leaders of the Persians also fell in the battle: Niphates, Petines, Spithridates, viceroy of Lydia,

Mithrobuzanes, governor of Cappadocia, Mithridates, the soninlaw of Darius, Arbupales, son of Darius the

son of Artaxerxes, Pharnaces, brother of the wife of Darius, and Omares, commander of the auxiliaries.

Arsites fled from the battle into Phrygia, where he is reported to have committed suicide, because he was

Of the Macedonians, about twentyfive of the Companions were killed at the first onset, brazen statues of

whom we erected at Dium, executed by Lysippus[3], at Alexander's order. The same sculptor also ex ecuted a

statue of Alexander himself, being chosen by him for the work in preference to all other artists. Of the other

cavalry over sixty were slain, and of the infantry about thirty. These were buried by Alexander the next day,

together with their arms and other decorations. To their parents and children he granted exemption from

imposts on agricultural produce, and he relieved them from all personal services and taxes upon property. He

also exhibited great solicitude in regard to the wounded, for he himself visited each man, looked at their

wounds, and inquired how and in the performance of what duty they had received them, al lowing them both

to speak and brag of their own deeds. He also buried the Persian commanders and the Greek mercenaries who

were killed fighting on the side of the enemy. But as many of them as he took pris oners he bound in fetters

and sent them away to Macedonia to till the soil, because, though they were Greeks, they were fighting

against Greece on behalf of the foreigners in opposition to the decrees which the Greeks had made in their

federal council. To Athens also he sent 300 suits of Persian armour to be hung up in the Acropolis as a votive

offering to Athena, and ordered this inscription to be fixed over them, "Alexander, son of Philip, and all the

Greeks except the Lacedaemonians, present this offering from the spoils taken from the foreigners inhabiting

6. While he was still at Mallus, he was informed that Darius was encamped with all his force at Sochi, a place

in the land of Assyria, distant about two days' march from the Assyrian Gates. Then indeed he collected the

Companions and told them what was reported about Darius and his army. They urged him to lead them on as

they were, without delay. At that time he commended them, and broke up the conference; but next day he led

them forward against Darius and the Persians. On the second day he passed through the Gates and encamped

near the city of Myriandrus; but in the night a heavy tempest and a violent storm of wind and rain occurred

which detained him in his camp. Darius, on the other hand, up to this time was delaying with his army,

having chosen a plain in the land of Assyria which stretched out in every direction, suitable for the immense

size of his army and convenient for the evolutions of cavalry. Amyntas, son of Antiochus, the deserter from

Alexander, advised him not to abandon this position, because the open country was favourable to the great

multitude of the Persians and the vast quantity of their baggage. So Darius remained. But as Alexander made

a long stay at Tarsus on account of his illness, and not a short one at Soli, where he offered sacrifice and

conducted his army in proces sion, and moreover spent some time in marching against the Cilician

mountaineers, Darius was induced to swerve from his resolution. He was also not unwilling to be led to form

whatever decision was most agreeable to his own wishes; and being urged on by those who for the

gratification of pleasure associated with him, and will associate for their injury with those who for the time

are reigning, he came to the conclusion that Alexander was no longer desirous of advancing further, but was

shrinking from an encounter on learning that Darius himself was marching against him. On all sides they

were urging him on, asserting that he would trample down the army of the Macedonians with his cavalry.

Nevertheless, Amyntas, at any rate, confidently afffirmed that Alexander would certainly come to any place

where he heard Darius might be; and he exhorted him by all means to stay where he was. But the worse

advice, because at the immediate time it was more pleasant to hear, prevailed; moreover perhaps he was led

by some divine influence into that locality where he derived little advantage from his cavalry and from the

very number of his men, javelins and bows, and where he could not even exhibit the mere magnificence of

his army, but surrendered to Alex ander and his troops an easy victory. For it was already decreed by fate that

the Persians should be deprived of the rule of Asia by the Mace donians, just as the Medes had been deprived

7. Darius crossed the mountain range by what are called the Amanic Gates, and advancing towards Issus,

came without being noticed to the rear of Alexander. Having reached Issus, he captured as many of the

Macedonians as had been left behind there on account of illness. These he cruelly mutilated and slew. Next

day he proceeded to the river Pinarus. As soon as Alexander heard that Darius was in his rear, because the

news did not seem to him trustworthy, he embarked some of the Companions in a ship with thirty oars, and

sent them back to Issus, to observe whether the report was true. The men who sailed in the thirtyoared ship

discovered the Persians encamped there more easily, because the sea in this part takes the form of a bay. They

therefore brought back word to Alexander that Darius was at hand. Alexander then called together the

generals, the commanders of cavalry, and the leaders of the Grecian allies, and exhorted them to take courage

from the dangers which they had already surmounted, asserting that the struggle would be between

themselves who had been previously victorious and a foe who had already been beaten; and that the deity was

acting the part of general on their behalf better than himself, by putting it into the mind of Darius to move his

forces from the spacious plain and shut them up in a narrow place, where there was suffficient room for

themselves to deepen their phalanx by marching from front to rear, but where their vast multitude would be

useless to the enemy in the battle. He added that their foes were similar to them neither in strength nor in

courage; for the Macedonians, who had long been practised in warlike toils accompanied with danger, were

coming into close conflict with Persians and Medes, men who had become enervated by a long course of

luxurious ease; and, to crown all, they, being freemen, were about to engage in battle with men who were

slaves. He said, moreover, that the Greeks who were coming into conflict with Greeks would not be fighting

for the same objects; for those with Darius were braving danger for pay, and that pay not high; whereas, those

on their side were voluntarily defending the interests of Greece. Again, of foreigners, the Thracians,

Paeonians, Illyrians, and Agrianians, who were the most robust and warlike of men in Europe, were about to

be arrayed against the most sluggish and effeminate races of Asia. In addition to all this, Alexander was

commanding in the field against Darius. These things he enumerated as evidences of their superiority in the

struggle; and then he began to point out the great rewards they would win from the danger to be incurred. For

he told them that on that occasion they would overcome, not merely the viceroys of Darius, nor the cavalry

drawn up at the Granicus, nor the 20,000 Grecian mercenaries, but all the available forces of the Persians and

Medes, as well as all the other races subject to them dwelling in Asia, and the Great King present in person.

After this conflict nothing would be left for them to do, except to take possession of all Asia, and to put an

end to their many labours. In addition to this, he reminded them of their brilliant achievements in their

collective capacity in days gone by; and if any man had individually performed any distinguished feat of

valour from love of glory, he mentioned him by name in commendation of the deed. He then recapitulated as

modestly as possible his own daring deeds in the various battles. He is also said to have reminded them of

Xenophon and the I0,000 men who accompanied him, asserting that the latter were in no way comparable

with them either in number or in general excellence. Besides, they had had with them neither Thessalian,

Boeotian, Peloponnesian, Macedonian, or Thracian horsemen, nor any of the other kinds of cavalry which

were in the Macedonian army; nor had they any archers or slingers except a few Cretans and Rhodians, and

even these were got ready by Xenophon on the spur of the moment in the very crisis of danger. And yet they

put the king and all his forces to rout close to Babylon itself, and succeeded in reaching the Euxine Sea after

defeating all the races which lay in their way as they were marching down thither. He also adduced whatever

other arguments were suitable for a great commander to use in order to encourage brave men in such a critical

moment before the perils of battle. They urged him to lead them against the foe without delay, coming from

8. Alexander then ordered his soldiers to take their dinner, and having sent a few of his horsemen and archers

forward to the Gates to recon noitre the road in the rear, he took the whole of his army and marched in the

night to occupy the pass again. When about midnight he had again got possession of it, he caused the army to

rest the remainder of the night there upon the rocks, having posted vigilant sentries. At the approach of dawn

he began to descend from the pass along the road; and as long as the space was narrow everywhere, he led his

army in column, but when the mountains parted so as to leave a plain between them, he kept on opening out

the column into the phalanx, marching one line of heavy armed infantry after another up into line towards the

mountain on the right and towards the sea on the left. Up to this time his cavalry had been ranged behind the

infantry; but when they advanced into the open country, he began to draw up his army in order of battle. First,

upon the right wing near the mountain he placed his infantry guard and the shieldbearers, under the

command of Nicanor, son of Parmenio; next to these the regiment of Coenus, and close to them that of

Perdiccas. These troops were posted as far as the middle of the heavyarmed infantry to one beginning from

the right. On the left wing first stood the regiment of Amyntas, then that of Ptolemy, and close to this that of

Meleager. The infantry on the left had been placed under the command of Craterus; but Parmenio held the

chief direction of the whole left wing. This general had been ordered not to abandon the sea, so that they

might not be surrounded by the foreigners, who were likely to outflank them on all sides by their superior

But as soon as Darius was certified of Alexander's approach for battle, he conveyed about 30,000 of his

cavalry and with them 20,000 of his lightarmed infantry across the river Pinarus, in order that he might be

able to draw up the rest of his forces with ease. Of the heavy armed infantry, he placed first the 30,000 Greek

mercenaries to oppose the phalanx of the Macedonians, and on both sides of these he placed 60,000 of the

men called Cardaces, who were also heavyarmed infantry. For the place where they were posted was able to

contain only this number in a single phalanx. He also posted 20,000 men near the mountain on their left and

facing Alexander's right. Some of these troops were also in the rear of Alexander's army; for the mountain

near which they were posted in one part sloped a great way back and formed a sort of bay, like a bay in the

sea, and afterwards bending forwards caused the men who had been posted at the foot of it to be behind

Alexander's right wing. The remaining multitude of Darius's lightarmed and heavyarmed infantry was

marshalled by nations to an unserviceable depth and placed behind the Grecian mercenaries and the Persian

army arranged in phalanx. The whole of the army with Darius was said to number about 600,000 fighting

As Alexander advanced, he found that the ground spread out a little in breadth, and he accordingly brought

up his horsemen, both those called Companions, and the Thessalians as well as the Macedonians, and posted

them with himself on the right wing. The Peloponnesians and the rest of the allied force of Greeks he sent to

Parmenio on the left. When Darius had marshalled his phalanx, by a preconcerted signal he recalled the

cavalry which he had posted in front of the river for the express purpose of rendering the arranging of his

army easy. Most of these he placed on the right wing near the sea facing Parmenio; because here the ground

was more suitable for the evolutions of cavalry. A certain part of them also he led up to the mountain towards

the left. But when they were seen to be useless there on account of the narrowness of the ground, he ordered

most of these also to ride round to the right wing and join their comrades there. Darius himself occupied the

centre of the whole army, inasmuch as it was the custom for the kings of Persia to take up that position, the

9. Meantime when Alexander perceived that nearly all the Persian cavalry had changed their ground and gone

to his left towards the sea, and that on his side only the Peloponnesians and the rest of the Grecian cavalry

were posted there, he sent the Thessalian cavalry thither with speed, ordering them not to ride along before

the front of the whole array, lest they should be seen by the enemy to be shifting their ground, but to proceed

without being seen in the rear of the phalanx. In front of the cavalry on the right, he posted the lancers under

the command of Protomachus, and the Paeonians under that of Aristo; and of the infantry, the archers under

the direction of Antiochus, and the Agrianians under that of Attalus. Some of the cavalry and archers also he

drew up so as to form an angle with the centre towards the mountain which was in the rear; so that on the

right, his phalanx had been drawn up separated into two wings, the one fronting Darius and the main body of

Persians beyond the river, and the other facing those who had been posted at the mountain in their rear. On

the left wing the infantry consisting of the Cretan archers and the Thracians under command of Sitalces were

posted in front; and before these the cavalry towards the left. The Grecian mercenaries were drawn up as a

reserve for all of them. When he perceived that the phalanx towards the right was too thin, and it seemed

likely that the Persians would outflank him here considerably, he ordered two squadrons of the Companion

cavalry, the Anthemusian, of which Peroedas, son of Menestheus, was captain, and that which was called

Leugaean, under the command of Pantordanus, son of Cleander, to proceed from the centre to the right

without being seen. Having also marched the archers, part of the Agrianians and some of the Grecian

mercenaries up to his right in the front, he extended his phalanx beyond the wing of the Persians. But when

those who had been posted upon the mountains did not descend, a charge was made by a few of the

Agrianians and archers at Alexander's order, by which they were easily put to the rout from the foot of the

mountain. As they fled to the summit he decided that he could make use of the men who had been drawn up

to keep these in check, to fill up the ranks of his phalanx. He thought it quite sufficient to post 300 horsemen

10. Having thus marshalled his men, he caused them to rest for some time, and then led them forward, as he

had resolved that their advance should be very slow. For Darius was no longer leading the foreigners against

him, as he had arranged them at first, but he remained in his position, upon the bank of the river, which was

in many parts steep and precipitous; and in certain places, where it seemed more easy to ascend, he extended

a stockade along it. By this it was at once evident to Alexander's men that Darius had become cowed in spirit.

But when the armies were at length close to each other, Alexander rode about in every direction to exhort his

troops to show their valour, mentioning with befitting epithets the names, not only of the generals, but also

those of the captains of cavalry and infantry, and of the Grecian mercenaries as many as were more

distinguished either by reputation or any deed of valour. From all sides arose a shout not to delay but to

attack the enemy. At first he still led them on in close array with measured step, although he had the forces of

Darius already in distant view, lest by a too hasty march any part of the phalanx should fluctuate from the line

and get separated from the rest. But when they came within range of darts, Alexander himself and those

around him, being posted on the right wing, dashed first into the river with a run, in order to alarm the

Persians by the rapidity of their onset, and by coming sooner to close conflict to avoid being much injured by

the archers. And it turned out just as Alexander had conjectured; for as soon as the battle became a

handtohand one, the part of the Persian army stationed on the left wing was put to rout; and here

Alexander and his men won a brilliant victory. But the Grecian mercenaries serving under Darius attacked the

Macedonians at the point where they saw their phalanx especially disordered. For the Macedonian phalanx

had been broken and had disjoined towards the right wing, because Alexander had dashed into the river with

eagerness, and engaging in a handtohand conflict was already driving back the Persians posted there; but

the Macedonians in the centre had not prosecuted their task with equal eagerness; and finding many parts of

the bank steep and precipitous, they were unable to preserve the front of the phalanx in the same line. Here

then the struggle was desperate; the Grecian mercenaries of Darius fighting in order to push the Macedonians

back into the river, and regain the victory for their allies who were already flying; the Macedonians

struggling in order not to fall short of Alexander's success, which was already manifest, and not to tarnish the

glory of the phalanx, which up to that time had been commonly pro claimed invincible. Moreover the feeling

of rivalry which existed be tween the Grecian and Macedonian races inspired each side in the con flict. Here

fell Ptolemy, son of Seleucus, after proving himself a valiant man, besides about I20 other Macedonians of no

11. Hereupon the regiments on the right wing, perceiving that the Persians opposed to them had already been

put to rout, wheeled round towards the Grecian mercenaries of Darius and their own hardpressed

detachment. Having driven the Greeks away from the river, they extended their phalanx beyond the Persian

army on the side which had been broken, and attacking the Greeks on the flank, were already beginning to cut

them up. However the Persian cavalry which had been posted opposite the Thessalians did not remain on the

other side of the river during the struggle, but came through the water and made a vigorous attack upon the

Thessalian squadrons. In this place a fierce cavalry battle ensued; for the Persians did not give way until they

perceived that Darius had fled and the Grecian mercenaries had been cut up by the phalanx and severed from

them. Then at last there ensued a decided flight and on all sides. The horses of the Persians suffered much

injury in the retreat, because their riders were heavily armed; and the horsemen themselves, being so many in

number and retreating in panic terror without any regard to order along narrow roads, were trampled on and

injured no less by each other than by the pursuing enemy. The Thessalians also followed them up with

vigour, so that the slaughter of the cavalry in the flight was no less than it would have been if they had been

But as soon as the left wing of Darius was terrified and routed by Alexander, and the Persian king perceived

that this part of his army was severed from the rest, without any further delay he began to flee in his chariot

along with the first, just as he was. He was conveyed safely in the chariot as long as he met with level ground

in his flight; but when he lighted upon ravines and other rough ground, he left the chariot there, divesting

himself both of his shield and Median mantle. He even left his bow in the chariot; and mounting a horse

continued his flight. The night, which came on soon after, alone rescued him from being captured by

Alexander; for as long as there was daylight the latter kept up the pursuit at full speed. But when it began to

grow dark and the things before the feet became invisible, he turned back again to the camp, after capturing

the chariot of Darius with the shield, the Median mantle, and the bow in it. For his pursuit had been too slow

for him to overtake Darius, because, though he wheeled round at the first breaking asunder of the phalanx, yet

he did not turn to pursue him until he observed that the Grecian mercenaries and the Persian cavalry had been

Of the Persians were killed Arsames, Rheomithres, and Atizyes, three of the men who had commanded the

cavalry at the Granicus. Sabaces, viceroy of Egypt, and Bubaces, one of the Persian dignitaries, were also

killed, besides about I00,000 of the private soldiers, among them being more than I0,000 cavalry. So great

was the slaughter that Ptolemy, son of Lagus, who then accompanied Alexander, says that the men who were

with them pursuing Darius, coming in the pursuit to a ravine, passed over it upon the corpses. The camp of

Darius was taken forthwith at the first assault, containing his mother, his wife, who was also his sister, and

his infant son. His two daughters, and a few other women, wives of Persian peers, who were in attendance

upon them, were likewise cap tured. For the other Persians happened to have despatched their women along

with the rest of their property to Damascus; because Darius had sent to that city the greater part of his money

and all the other things which the Great King was in the habit of taking with him as necessary for his

luxurious mode of living, even though he was going on a military expedition. The consequence was, that in

the camp no more than 3,000 talents were captured; but soon after, the money in Damascus was also seized

by Parmenio, who was despatched thither for that very purpose. Such was the result of this famous battle

which was fought in the month Maimacterion, when Nicocrates was archon of the Athenians[4].

12. The next day, Alexander, though suffering from a wound which he had received in the thigh from a

sword, visited the wounded, and having collected the bodies of the slain, he gave them a splendid burial with

all his forces most brilliantly marshalled in order of battle. He also spoke with eulogy to those whom he

himself had recognized performing any gallant deed in the battle, and also to those whose exploits he had

learnt by report fully corroborated. He likewise honoured each of them individually with a gift of money in

proportion to his desert. He then appointed Balacrus, son of Nicanor, one of the royal bodyguards, vice roy

of Cilicia; and in his place among the bodyguards he chose Menes, son of Dionysius. In the place of

Ptolemy, son of Seleucus, who had been killed in the battle, he appointed Polysperchon, son of Simmias, to

the command of a brigade. He remitted to the Solians the fifty talents which were still due of the money

Nor did he treat the mother, wife, and children of Darius with neglect; for some of those who have written

Alexander's history say that on the very night in which he returned from the pursuit of Darius, entering the

Persian king's tent, which had been selected for his use, he heard the lamentation of women and other noise

of a similar kind not far from the tent. Inquiring therefore who the women were, and why they were in a tent

so near, he was answered by some one as follows, "O king, the mother, wife, and children of Darius are

lamenting for him as slain, since they have been informed that you have his bow and his royal mantle, and

that his shield has been brought back." When Alexander heard this, he sent Leonnatus, one of his

Companions, to them, with injunctions to tell them, "Darius is still alive; in his flight he left his arms and

mantle in the chariot; and these are the only things of his that Alexander has." Leonnatus entered the tent and

told them the news about Darius, saying, moreover, that Alexander would allow them to retain the state and

retinue befitting their royal rank, as well as the title of queens; for he had not undertaken the war against

Darius from a feeling of hatred, but he had conducted it in a legitimate manner for the empire of Asia. Such

are the statements of Ptolemy and Aristobulus. But there is another report, to the effect that on the following

day Alexander himself went into the tent, accompanied alone by Hephaestion one of his Companions. The

mother of Darius, being in doubt which of them was the king (for they had both arrayed themselves in the

same style of dress), went up to Hephaestion, because he appeared to her the taller of the two, and prostrated

herself before him. But when he drew back, and one of her attendants pointed out Alexander, saying he was

the king, she was ashamed of her mistake, and was going to retire. But the king told her she had made no

mistake, for Hephaestion was also Alexander[5]. This I record neither being sure of its truth nor thinking it

altogether unreliable. If it really occurred, I commend Alexander for his compassionate treatment of the

women, and the confidence he felt in his companion, and the honour bestowed on him; but if it merely seems

probable toi historians tyhat Alexander would have acted and spoken thus, even for this reason I think him

[Arrian, The Anabasis of Alexander, together with the Indica, E. J. Chinnock, tr. (London: George Bell and

He set out from Marathus and took possession of Byblus on terms of capitulation, as he did also of Sidon, the

inhabitants of which spontaneously invited him from hatred of the Persians and Darius. Thence he advanced

towards Tyre; ambassadors from which city, despatched by the commonwealth, met him on the march,

announcing that the Tyrians had decided to do whatever he might command. He commended both the city

and its ambassadors, and ordered them to return and tell the Tyrians that he wished to enter their city and

offer sacrifice to Heracles. The son of the king of the Tyrians was one of the ambassadors, and the others

were conspicuous men in Tyre; but the king Azemilcus himself was sailing with Autophradates.

16. The reason of this demand was, that in Tyre there existed a temple of Heracles, the most ancient of all

those which are mentioned in history. It was not dedicated to the Argive Heracles, the son of Alcmena; for

this Heracles was honoured in Tyre many generations before Cadmus set out from Phoenicia and occupied

Thebes, and before Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, was born, from whom Dionysus, the son of Zeus, was

born. Dionysus would be third from Cadmus, being a contemporary of Labdacus, son of Polydorus, the son

of Cadmus; and the Argive Heracles lived about the time of Oedipus, son of Laius. The Egyptians also

worshipped another Heracles, not the one which either the Tyrians or Greeks worship. But Herodotus says

that the Egyptians considered Heracles to be one of the twelve gods[6], just as the Athenians worshipped a

different Dionysus, who was the son of Zeus and Core; and the mystic chant called Iacchus was sung to this

Dionysus, not to the Theban. So also I think that the Heracles honoured in Tartessus by the Iberians, where

are certain pillars named after Heracles, is the Tyrian Heracles; for Tartessus was a colony of the

Phoenicians, and the temple to the Heracles there was built and the sacrifices offered after the usage of the

Phoenicians. Hecataeus the historian says Geryones, against whom the Argive Heracles was despatched by

Eurystheus to drive his oxen away and bring them to Mycenae, had nothing to do with the land of the

Iberians; nor was Heracles despatched to any island called Erythia outside the Great Sea; but that Geryones

was king of the mainland around Ambracia and the Amphilochians, that Heracles drove the oxen from this

Epirus, and that this was deemed no mean task. I know that to the present time this part of the mainland is

rich in pasture land and rears a very fine breed of oxen; and I do not think it beyond the bounds of probability

that the fame of the oxen from Epirus, and the name of the king of Epirus, Geryones, had reached Eurystheus.

But I do not think it probable that Eurystheus would know the name of the king of the Iberians, who were the

remotest nation in Europe, or whether a fine breed of oxen grazed in their land, unless some one, by

introducing Hera into the account, as herself giving these commands to Heracles through Eurystheus, wished,

To this Tyrian Heracles, Alexander said he wished to offer sacrifice. But when this message was brought to

Tyre by the ambassadors, the people passed a decree to obey any other command of Alexander, but not to

admit into the city any Persian or Macedonian; thinking that under the existing circumstances, this was the

most specious answer, and that it would be the safest course for them to pursue in reference to the issue of the

war, which was still uncertain. When the answer from Tyre was brought to Alexander, he sent the

ambassadors back in a rage. He then summoned a council of his Companions and the leaders of his army,

17. "Friends and allies, I see that an expedition to Egypt will not be safe for us, so long as the Persians retain

the sovereignty of the sea; nor is it a safe course, both for other reasons, and especially looking at the state of

matters in Greece, for us to pursue Darius, leaving in our rear the city of Tyre itself in doubtful allegiance,

and Egypt and Cyprus in the occupation of the Persians. I am apprehensive lest while we advance with our

forces towards Babylon and in pursuit of Darius, the Persians should again conquer the maritime districts,

and transfer the war into Greece with a larger army, considering that the Lacedaemonians are now waging

war against us without disguise, and the city of Athens is restrained for the present rather by fear than by any

goodwill towards us. But if Tyre were captured, the whole of Phoenicia would be in our possession, and the

fleet of the Phoenicians, which is the most numerous and the best in the Persian navy, would in all probability

come over to us. For the Phoenician sailors and marines will not dare to put to sea in order to incur danger on

behalf of others, when their own cities are occupied by us. After this, Cyprus will either yield to us without

delay, or will be captured with ease at the mere arrival of a naval force; and then navigating the sea with the

ships from Macedonia in conjunction with those of the Phoenicians, Cyprus also having come over to us, we

shall acquire the absolute sovereignty of the sea, and at the same time an expedition into Egypt will become

an easy matter for us. After we have brought Egypt into subjection, no anxiety about Greece and our own

land will any longer rermain, and we shall be able to undertake the expedition to Babylon with safety in

regard to affairs at home, and at the same time with greater reputation, in consequence of having appropriated

to ourselves all the maritime provinces of the Persians and all the land this side of the Euphrates."

18. By this speech he easily persuaded his officers to make an attempt upon Tyre. Moreover he was

encouraged by a divine admonition, for that very night in his sleep he seemed to be approaching the Tyrian

walls, and Heracles seemed to take him by the right hand and lead him up into the city. This was interpreted

by Aristander to mean that Tyre would be taken with labour, because the deeds of Heracles were

accomplished with labour. Certainly, the siege of Tyre appeared to be a great enterprise; for the city was an

island[7] and fortified all round with lofty walls. Moreover naval operations seemed at that time more

favourable to the Tyrians, both because the Persians still possessed the sovereignty of the sea and many ships

were still remaining with the citizens themselves. However, as these arguments of his had prevailed, he

resolved to construct a mole from the mainland to the city. The place is a narrow strait full of pools; and the

part of it near the mainland is shallow water and muddy, but the part near the city itself, where the channel

was deepest, was about eighteen feet in depth. But there was an abundant supply of stones and wood, which

they put on the top of the stones. Stakes were easily fixed down firmly in the mud, which itself served as a

cement to the stones to hold them firm. The zeal of the Macedonians in the work was great, and it was

increased by the presence of Alexander himself, who took the lead in everything, now rousing the men to

exertion by speech, and now by presents of money lightening the labour of those who were toiling more than

their fellows from the desire of gaining praise for their exertions. As long as the mole was being constructed

near the mainland, the work made easy and rapid progress, as the material was poured into a small depth of

water, and there was no one to hinder them; but when they began to approach the deeper water, and at the

same time came near the city itself, they suffered severely, being assailed with missiles from the walls, which

were lofty, inasmuch as they had been expressly equipped for work rather than for fighting. Moreover, as the

Tyrians still retained command of the sea, they kept on sailing with the triremes to various parts of the mole,

and made it impossible in many places for the Macedonians to pour in the material. But the latter erected two

towers upon the mole, which they had now projected over a long stretch of sea, and upon these towers they

placed engines of war. Skins and prepared hides served as coverings in front of them, to prevent them being

struck by firebearing missiles from the wall, and at the same time to be a screen against ar rows to those

who were working. It was likewise intended that the Tyrians who might sail near to injure the men engaged

in the construction of the mole should not retire easily, being assailed by missiles from the towers.

19. But to counteract this the Tyrians adopted the following contrivance. They filled a vessel, which had been

used for transporting horses, with dry twigs and other combustible wood, fixed two masts on the prow, and

fenced it round in the form of a circle as large as possible, so that it might contain as much chaff and as many

torches as possible. Moreover they placed upon this vessel quantities of pitch, brimstone, and whatever else

was calculated to foment a great flame. They also stretched out a double yardarm upon each mast; and from

these they hung caldrons into which they had poured or cast materials likely to kindle flame which would

extend to a great distance. They then put ballast into the stern, in order to raise the prow aloft, the vessel

being weighed down abaft. Then watching for a wind bearing towards the mole, they fastened the vessel to

some triremes which towed it before the breeze. As soon as they approached the mole and the towers, they

threw fire among the wood, and at the same time ran the vessel, with the triremes, aground as violently as

possible, dashing against the end of the mole. The men in the vessel easily swam away, as soon as it was set

on fire. A great flame soon caught the towers; and the yardarms being twisted round poured out into the fire

the materials that had been prepared for kindling the flame. The men also in the triremes tarrying near the

mole kept on shooting arrows into the towers, so that it was not safe for the men to approach who were

bringing materials to quench the fire. Upon this, when the towers had already caught fire, many men hastened

from the city, and embarking in light vessels, and striking against various parts of the mole, easily tore down

the stockade which had been placed in front of it for protection, and burned up all the engines of war which

the fire from the vessel did not reach. But Alexander began to construct a wider mole from the mainland,

capable of containing more towers; and he ordered the enginemakers to prepare fresh engines. While this

was being performed, he took the shieldbearing guards and the Agrianians and set out to Sidon, to collect

there all the triremes he could; since it was evident that the successful con clusion of the siege would be much

more diffficult to attain, so long as the Tyrians retained the superiority at sea.

20. About this time Gerostratus, King of Aradus, and Enylus, King of Byblus, ascertaining that their cities

were in the possession of Alexander, deserted Autophradates and the fleet under his command, and came to

Alexander with their naval force, accompanied by the Sidonian triremes; so that about eighty Phoenician

ships joined him. About the same time triremes also came to him from Rhodes, both the one called

Peripolus,[8] and nine others with it. From Soli and Mallus also came three, and from Lycia ten; from

Macedonia also a ship with fifty oars, in which sailed Proteas, son of Andronicus. Not long after, too, the

kings of Cyprus put into Sidon with about 120 ships, since they had heard of the defeat of Darius at Issus, and

were terrified, because the whole of Phoenicia was already in the possession of Alexander. To all these

Alexander granted indemnity for their previous conduct, because they seemed to have joined the Persian fleet

rather by necessity than by their own choice. While the engines of war were being constructed for him, and

the ships were being fitted up for a naval attack on the city and for the trial of a seabattle, he took some

squadrons of cavalry, the Agrianians and archers, and made an expedition towards Arabia into the range of

mountains called AntiLibanus. Having subdued some of the mountaineers by force, and drawn others over

to him by terms of capitulation, he returned to Sidon in ten days. Here he found Cleander, son of

Polemocrates, just arrived from Peloponnesus, having 4,ooo Grecian mercenaries with him.

When his fleet had been arranged in due order, he embarked upon the decks as many of his shieldbearing

guards as seemed suffficient for his enterprise, unless a seabattle were to be fought rather by breaking the

enemy's line than by a close conflict. He then started from Sidon and sailed towards Tyre with his ships

arranged in proper order, himself being on the right wing which stretched out seaward; and with him were the

kings of the Cyprians, and all those of the Phoenicians except Pnytagoras, who with Craterus was

commanding the left wing of the whole line. The Tyrians had previously resolved to fight a seabattle, if

Alexander should sail against them by sea. But then with surprise they beheld the vast multitude of his ships;

for they had not yet learned that Alexander had all the ships of the Cyprians and Phoenicians. At the same

time they were surprised to see that he was sailing against them with his fleet arranged in due order; for

Alexander's fleet, a little before it came near the city, tarried for a while out in the open sea, with the view of

provoking the Tyrians to come out to a battle; but afterwards, as the enemy did not put out to sea against

them, though they were thus arranged in line, they advanced to the attack with a great dashing of oars. Seeing

this, the Tyrians decided not to fight a battle at sea, but closely blocked up the passage for ships with as many

triremes as the mouths of their harbour would contain, and guarded it, so that the enemy's fleet might not find

As the Tyrians did not put out to sea against him, Alexander sailed near the city, but resolved not to try to

force an entrance into the harbour towards Sidon on account of the narrowness of its mouth; and at the same

time because he saw that the entrance had been blocked up with many triremes having their prows turned

towards him. But the Phoenicians fell upon the three triremes moored furthest out at the mouth of the

harbour, and attacking them prow to prow, succeeded in sinking them. However, the men in the ships easily

swam off to the land which was friendly to them. Then, indeed, Alexander moored his ships along the shore

not far from the mole which had been made, where there appeared to be shelter from the winds; and on the

following day he ordered the Cyprians with their ships and their admiral Andromachus to moor near the city

opposite the harbour which faces towards Sidon, and the Phoenicians opposite the harbour which looks

towards Egypt, situated on the other side of the mole, where also was his own tent.

21. He had now collected many engineers both from Cyprus and the whole of Phoenicia, and many engines

of war had been constructed, some upon the mole, others upon vessels used for transporting horses, which he

brought with him from Sidon, and others upon the triremes which were not fast sailers. When all the

preparations had been completed they brought the engines of war both along the mole that had been made

and also from the ships moored near various parts of the wall and attempting to breach it. The Tyrians erected

wooden towers on their battle ments opposite the mole, from which they might annoy the enemy; and if the

engines of war were brought near any other part, they defended themselves with missiles and shot at the very

ships with firebearing arrows, so that they deterred the Macedonians from approaching the wall. Their walls

opposite the mole were about I50 feet high, with a breadth in proportion, and constructed with large stones

imbedded in gypsum. It was not easy for the horsetransports and the triremes of the Macedonians, which

were conveying the engines of war up to the wall, to approach the city, because a great quantity of stones

hurled forward into the sea prevented their near assault. These stones Alexander determined to drag out of the

sea; but this was a work accomplished with great difficulty, since it was performed from ships and not from

the firm earth; especially as the Tyrians, covering their ships with screens, brought them alongside the

anchors of the triremes, and cutting the cables of the anchors underneath, made anchoring impossible for the

enemy's ships. But Alexander covered many thirtyoared vessels with screens in the same way, and placed

them athwart in front of the anchors, so that the assault of the ships was repelled by them. But,

notwithstanding this, divers under the sea secretly cut their cables. The Macedonians then used chains to their

anchors instead of cables, and let them down so that the divers could do nothing further. Then, fastening

slipknots to the stones, they dragged them out of the sea from the mole; and having raised them aloft with

cranes, they discharged them into deep water, where they were no longer likely to do injury by being hurled

forward. The ships now easily approached the part of the wall where it had been made clear of the stones

which had been hurled forward. The Tyrians being now reduced to great straits on all sides, resolved to make

an attack on the Cyprian ships, which were moored opposite the harbour turned towards Sidon. For a long

time they spread sails across the mouth of the harbour, in order that the manning of the triremes might not be

discernible; and about the middle of the day, when the sailors were scattered in quest of necessaries, and

when Alexander usually retired to his tent from the fleet on the other side of the city, they manned three

quinqueremes, an equal number of quadriremes and seven triremes with the most expert complement of

rowers possible, and with the bestarmed men adapted for fighting from the decks, together with the men

most daring in naval contests. At first they rowed out slowly and quietly in single file, moving forward the

handles of their oars without any signal from the men who give the time to the rowers; but when they were

already tacking against the Cyprians, and were near enough to be seen, then indeed with a loud shout and

encouragement to each other, and at the same time with impetuous rowing, they commenced the attack.

22. It happened on that day that Alexander went away to his tent, but after a short time returned to his ships,

not tarrying according to his wont. The Tyrians fell all of a sudden upon the ships lying at their moorings,

finding some entirely empty and others being manned with diffficulty from those who happened to be present

at the very time of the shout and attack. At the first onset they at once sank the quinquereme of the king of

Pnytagoras, that of Androcles the Amanthusian and that of Pasicrates the Curian; and they shattered the other

ships by pushing them ashore. But when Alexander perceived the sailing out of the Tyrian triremes, he

ordered most of the ships under his command whenever each was manned, to take position at the mouth of

the harbour, so that the rest of the Tyrian ships might not sail out. He then took the quinqueremes which he

had and about five of the triremes, which were manned by him in haste before the rest were ready, and sailed

round the city against the Tyrians who had sailed out of the harbour. The men on the wall, perceiving the

enemy's attack and observing that Alexander himself was in the fleet, began to shout to those in their own

ships, urging them to return; but as their shouts were not audible, on account of the noise of those who were

engaged in the ac tion, they exhorted them to retreat by various kinds of signals. At last after a long time, the

Tyrians, perceiving the impending attack of Alex ander's fleet, tacked about and began to flee into the

harbour; and a few of their ships succeeded in escaping, but Alexander's vessels assaulted the greater number,

and rendered some of them unfit for sailing; and a quinquereme and a quadrireme were captured at the very

mouth of the harbour. But the slaughter of the marines was not great; for when they perceived that the ships

were in possession of the enemy, they swam off without difficulty into the harbour. As the Tyrians could no

longer derive any aid from their ships, the Macedonians now brought up their military engines to the wall

itself. Those which were brought near the city along the mole did no damage worth mentioning on ac count

of the strength of the wall there. Others brought up some of the ships conveying military engines opposite the

part of the city turned towards Sidon. But when even there they met with no success, Alexander passed round

to the wall projecting towards the south wind and towards Egypt, and tried everywhere to make a breach.

Here first a large piece of the wall was thoroughly shaken, and a part of it was even broken and thrown down.

Then indeed for a short time he tried to make a storm to the extent of throwing a drawbridge upon the part

of the wall where a breach had been made. But the Tyrians without much difficulty beat the Macedonians

23. The third day after this, having waited for a calm sea, after encouraging the leaders of the regiments for

the action, he led the ships containing the military engines up to the city. In the first place he shook down a

large piece of the wall; and when the breach appeared to be sufficiently wide, he ordered the vessels

conveying the military engines to retire, and brought up two others, which carried the bridges, which he

intended to throw upon the breach in the wall. The shieldbearing guards occupied one of these vessels, which

he had put under the command of Admetus; and the other was occupied by the regiment of Coenus, called the

foot Companions. Alexander himself, with the shieldbearing guards, intended to scale the wall where it

might be practicable. He ordered some of his triremes to sail against both of the harbours, to see if by any

means they could force an entrance when the Tyrians had turned themselves to oppose him. He also ordered

those of his triremes which contained the missiles to be hurled from engines, or which were carrying archers

upon deck, to sail right round the wall and to run aground wherever it was practicable, and to take up position

within shooting range, where it was impossible to run aground, so that the Tyrians, being shot at from all

quarters, might become distracted, and not know whither to turn in their distress. When Alexander's ships

drew close to the city and the bridges were thrown from them upon the wall, the shieldbearing guards

mounted valiantly along these upon the wall; for their captain, Admetus, proved himself brave on that

occasion, and Alexander accompanied them, both as a courageous parti cipant in the action itself, and as a

witness of brilliant and dangerous feats of valour performed by others. The first part of the wall that was

captured was where Alexander had posted himself, the Tyrians being easily beaten back from it, as soon as

the Macedonians found firm footing, but at the same time a way of entrance not abrupt on every side.

Admetus was the first to mount the wall; but while cheering on his men to mount, he was struck with a spear

and died on the spot. After him, Alexander with the Companions got possession of the wall; and when some

of the towers and the parts of the wall between them were in his hands, he advanced through the battlements

to the royal palace, because the descent into the city that way seemed the easiest.

24. To return to the fleet, the Phoenicians forcing their way into the harbour looking towards Egypt, facing

which they happened to be moored, and bursting the bars asunder, shattered the ships in the harbour,

attacking some of them in deep water and driving others ashore. The Cyprians also sailed into the other

harbour looking towards Sidon, which had no bar across it, and made a speedy capture of the city on that

side. The main body of the Tyrians deserted the wall when they saw it in the enemy's possession; and rallying

opposite what was called the sanctuary of Agenor, they there turned round to resist the Macedonians. Against

these Alexander advanced with his shieldbearing guards, destroyed the men who fought there, and pursued

those who fled. Great was the slaughter also made both by those who were now occupying the city from the

harbour and by the regiment of Coenus, which had also entered it. For the Macedonians were now for the

most part advancing full of rage, being angry both at the length of the siege and also because the Tyrians,

having captured some of their men sailing from Sidon, had conveyed them to the top of their walls, so that

the deed might be visible from the camp, and after slaughtering them, had cast their bodies into the sea.

About 8,ooo of the Tyrians were killed; and of the Macedonians, besides Admetus, who had proved himself a

valiant man, being the first to scale the wall, twenty of the shieldbearing guards were killed in the assault on

that occasion. In the whole siege about 400 Macedonians were slain. Alexander gave an amnesty to all those

who fled for refuge into the temple of Heracles; among them being most of the Tyrian magistrates, including

the king Azemilcus, as well as certain envoys from the Carthaginians, who had come to their mothercity to

attend the sacrifice in honour of Heracles, according to an ancient custom. The rest of the prisoners were

reduced to slavery; all the Tyrians and mercenary troops, to the number of about 30,000, who had been

captured, being sold. Alexander then offered sacrifice to Heracles, and conducted a procession in honour of

that deity with all his soldiers fully armed. The ships also took part in this religious procession in honour of

Heracles. He moreover held a gymnastic contest in the temple, and celebrated a torch race. The military

engine, also, with which the wall had been battered down, was brought into the temple and dedicated as a

thankoffering; and the Tyrian ship sacred to Heracles, which had been captured in the naval attack, was

likewise dedicated to the god. An inscription was placed on it, either composed by Alexander himself or by

some one else; but as it is not worthy of recollection, I have not deemed it worth while to describe it. Thus

then was Tyre captured in the month Hecatombaion, when Anicetus was archon at Athens. [9]

25. While Alexander was still occupied by the siege of Tyre, ambassadors came to him from Darius,

announcing that he would give him I0,000 talents in exchange for his mother, wife, and children; that all the

territory west of the river Euphrates, as far as the Grecian Sea, should be Alexander's; and proposing that he

should marry the daughter of Darius, and become his friend and ally. When these proposals were announced

in a conference of the Companions, Parmenio is said to have told Alexander that if he were Alexander he

would be glad to put an end to the war on these terms, and incur no further hazard of success. Alexander is

said to have replied, so would he also do, if he were Parmenio, but as he was Alexander he replied to Darius

as he did. For he said that he was neither in want of money from Darius, nor would he receive a part of his

territory instead of the whole; for that all his money and territory were his; and that if he wished to marry the

daughter of Darius, he would marry her, even though Darius refused her to him. He commanded Darius to

come to him if he wished to experience any generous treatment from him. When Darius heard this answer, he

despaired of coming to terms with Alexander, and began to make fresh preparations for war.

7. Alexander arrived at Thapsacus in the month Hecatombaion,[10] in the archonship of Aristophanes at

Athens; and he found that two bridges of boats had been constructed over the stream. But Mazaeus, to whom

Darius had committed the duty of guarding the river, with about 3,000 cavalry, 2,000 of which were Grecian

mercenaries, was up to that time keeping guard there at the river. For this reason the Macedonians had not

constructed the bridge right across as far as the opposite bank, being afraid that Mazaeus might make an

assault upon the bridge where it ended. But when he heard that Alexander was approaching, he went off in

flight with all his army. As soon as he had fled, the bridges were completed as far as the further bank, and

Alexander crossed upon them with his army. Thence he marched up into the interior through the land called

Mesopotamia, having the river Euphrates and the mountains of Armenia on his left. When he started from the

Euphrates he did not march to Babylon by the direct road; because by going the other route he found all

things easier for the march of his army, and it was also possible to obtain fodder for the horses and provisions

for the men from the country. Besides this, the heat was not so scorching on the indirect route. Some of the

men from Darius's army, who had been dispersed for the purpose of scouting, were taken prisoners; and they

reported that Darius was encamped near the river Tigris, having resolved to prevent Alexander from crossing

that stream. They also said that he had a much larger army than that with which he fought in Cilicia. Hearing

this, Alexander went with all speed towards the Tigris; but when he reached it he found neither Darius

himself nor any guard which he had left. However he experienced great difficulty in crossing the stream, on

account of the swiftness of the current, though no one tried to stop him. There he made his army rest, and

while so doing, an eclipse of the moon nearly total occurred.[11] Alexander thereupon offered sacrifice to the

moon, the sun and the earth, whose deed this was, according to common report. Aristander thought that this

eclipse of the moon was a portent favourable to Alexander and the Macedonians; that there would be a battle

that very month, and that victory for Alexander was signified by the sacrificial victims. Having therefore

decamped from the Tigris, he went through the land of Aturia, having the mountains of the Gordyaeans on

the left and the Tigris itself on the right; and on the fourth day after the passage of the river, his scouts

brought word to him that the enemy's cavalry were visible there along the plain, but how many of them there

were they could not guess. Accordingly he drew his army up in order and advanced prepared for battle. Other

scouts again riding forward and taking more accurate observations told him that the cavalry did not seem to

8. Alexander therefore took the royal squadron of cavalry, and one squadron of the Companions, together

with the Paeonian scouts, and marched with all speed, having ordered the rest of his army to follow at leisure.

The Persian cavalry, seeing Alexander advancing quickly, began to flee with all their might. Though he

pressed close upon them in pursuit, most of them escaped; but a few, whose horses were fatigued by the

flight, were slain, others were taken prisoners, horses and all. From these they ascertained that Darius with a

large force was not far off. For the Indians who were adjacent to the Bactrians, as also the Bactrians

themselves and the Sogdianians had come to the aid of Darius, all being under the command of Bessus, the

viceroy of the land of Bactria. They were followed by the Sacians, a Scythian tribe belonging to the Scythians

who dwell in Asia. These were not subject to Bessus, but were in alliance with Darius. They were

commanded by Mavaces, and were horsebowmen. Barsaentes, the viceroy of Arachotia, led the Arachotians

and the men who were called mountaineer Indians. Satibarzanes, the viceroy of Areia, led the Areians, as did

Phrataphernes the Parthians, Hyrcanians, and Tapurians, all of whom were horsemen. Atropates commanded

the Medes, with whom were arrayed the Cadusians, Albanians, and Sacesinians. The men who dwelt near the

Red Sea[12] were marshalled by Ocondobates, Ariobarzanes, and Otanes. The Uxians and Susianians

acknowledged Oxathres son of Aboulites as their leader, and the Babylonians were commanded by Boupares.

The Carians who had been deported into central Asia and the Sitacenians had been placed in the same ranks

as the Babylonians. The Armenians were commanded by Orontes and Mithraustes, and the Cappadocians by

Ariaces. The Syrians from CoeleSyria and the men of Syria which lies between the rivers[13] were led by

Mazaeus. The whole army of Darius was said to contain 40,000 cavalry, 1,000,000 infantry, and 200

scythebearing chariots. There were only a few elephants, about fifteen in number, belonging to the Indians

who live this side of the Indus. With these forces Darius had encamped at Gaugamela, near the river

Bumodus, about seventy miles from the city of Arbela, in a district everywhere level; for whatever ground

thereabouts was unlevel and unfit for the evolutions of cavalry had long before been levelled by the Persians,

and made fit for the easy rolling of chariots and for the galloping of horses. For there were some who

persuaded Darius that he had got the worst of it in the battle fought at Issus from the narrowness of the

9. When Alexander had received all this information from the Persian scouts who had been captured, he

remained four days in the place where he had received the news; and gave his army rest after the march. He

meanwhile fortified his camp with a ditch and stockade, as he intended to leave behind the baggage and all

the soldiers who were unfit for fighting, and to go into the contest accompanied by his warriors carrying with

them nothing except their weapons. Accordingly he took his forces by night, and began the march about the

second watch, in order to come into collision with the foreigners at break of day. As soon as Darius was

informed of Alexander's approach, he at once drew out his army for battle; and Alexander led on his men

drawn up in like manner. Though the armies were only seven miles from each other, they were not yet in

sight of each other, for between the hostile forces some hills intervened. But when Alexander was only three

and onehalf miles from the enemy, and his army was already marching down from the hills just mentioned,

catching sight of the foreigners, he caused his phalanx to halt there. Calling a council of the Companions,

generals, cavalry officers, and leaders of the Grecian allies and mercenaries, he deliberated with them,

whether he should at orlce lead on the phalanx without delay, as most of them urged him to do; or, whether,

as Parmenio thought preferable, to encamp there for the present, to reconnoitre all the ground, in order to see

if there was anything there to excite suspicion or to impede their progress, or if there were ditches or stakes

firmly fixed in the earth out of sight, as well as to make a more accurate survey of the enemy's tactical

arrangements. Parmenio's opinion prevailed, so they encamped there, drawn up in the order in which they

intended to enter the battle. But Alexander took the light infantry and the cavalry Companions and went all

round, reconnoitring the whole country where he was about to fight the battle. Having returned, he again

called together the same leaders, and said that they did not require to be encouraged by him to enter the

contest; for they had been long before encouraged by their own valour, and by the gallant deeds which they

had already so often achieved. He thought it expedient that each of them individually should stir up his own

men separately; each infantry captain the men of his own company, the cavalry captain his own squadron, the

colonels their various regiments, and each of the leaders of the infantry the phalanx intrusted to him. He

assured them that in this battle they were going to fight, not as before, either for CoeleSyria, Phoenicia, or

Egypt, but for the whole of Asia. For he said this battle would decide who were to be the rulers of the

continent. It was not necessary for him to stir them up to gallant deeds by many words, since they had this

encouragement by nature; but they should see that each man took care, so far as in him lay, to preserve

discipline in the critical moment of action, and to keep perfect silence when it was expedient to advance in

silence. On the other hand, they should see that each man uttered a sonorous shout, where it would be

advantageous to shout, and to raise as terrible a battlecry as possible, when a suitable opportunity occurred

of raising the battlecry. He told them to take care to obey his orders quickly, and to transmit the orders they

had received to the ranks with all rapidity, each man remembering that both as an individual and in the

aggregate he was increasing the general danger if he was remiss in the discharge of his duty, and that he was

10. With these words and others like them he briefly exhorted his officers, and in return was exhorted by

them to feel confidence in their valour. He then ordered the soldiers to take dinner and to rest themselves. It is

said that Parmenio came to him in his tent, and urged him to make a night attack on the Persians, saying that

thus he would fall upon them unprepared and in a state of confusion, and at the same time more liable to a

panic in the dark. But the reply which he made to him, as others were listening to their conversation, was, that

it would be mean to steal a victory, and that Alexander ought to conquer in open daylight, and without any

artifice. This vaunting did not appear any arrogance on his part, but rather to indicate selfconfidence amid

dangers. To me, at any rate, he seems to have used correct reasoning in such a matter. For in the night many

accidents have occurred unexpectedly to those who were sufficiently prepared for battle as well as to those

who were deficiently prepared, which have caused the superior party to fail in their plans, and have handed

the victory over to the inferior party, contrary to the expectations of both sides. Though Alexander was

generally fond of encountering danger in battle, the night appeared to him perilous; and, besides, if Darius

were again defeated, a furtive and nocturnal attack on the part of the Macedonians would relieve him of the

necessity of confessing that he was an inferior general and commanded inferior troops. Moreover, if any

unexpected defeat befell his army, the circumjacent country was friendly to the enemy, and they were

acquainted with the locality, whereas the Macedonians were un acquainted with it, and surrounded by nothing

but foes, of whom the prisoners were no small party. These would be likely to assist in attacking them in the

night, not only if they should meet with defeat, but even if they did not appear to be gaining a decisive

victory. For this way of reasoning I commend Alexander; and I think him no less worthy of admiration for his

11. Darius and his army remained drawn up during the night in the same order as that in which they had first

arrayed themselves; because they had not surrounded themselves with a completely entrenched camp, and,

moreover, they were afraid that the enemy would attack them in the night. The success of the Persians, on

this occasion, was impeded especially by this long standing on watch with their arms, and by the fear which

usually springs up before great dangers; which, however, was not then suddenly aroused by a momentary

panic, but had been experienced for a long time, and had thoroughly cowed their spirits. The army of Darius

was drawn up in the following manner, for, according to the statement of Aristobulus, the written scheme of

arrangement drawn up by Darius was afterwards captured. His left wing was held by the Bactrian cavalry, in

conjunction with the Daans and Arachotians; near these had been posted the Persians, horse and foot mixed

together; next to these the Susians and then the Cadusians. This was the arrangement of the left wing as far as

the middle of the whole phalanx. On the right had been posted the men from CoeleSyria and Mesopotamia.

On the right again were the Medes; next to them the Parthians and Sacians; then the Tapurians and

Hyrcanians, and last the Albanians and Sacesinians, extending as far as the middle of the whole phalanx. In

the centre where King Darius was had been posted the king's kinsmen,[14] the Persian guards carrying spears

with golden apples at the butt end, the Indians, the Carians who had been forcibly removed to Central Asia,

and the Mardian archers. The Uxians, the Babylonians, the men who dwell near the Red Sea, and the

Sitacenians had also been drawn up in deep column. On the left, opposite Alexander's right, had been posted

the Scythian cavalry, about I,000 Bactrians and 100 scythebearing chariots. In front of Darius's royal

squadron of cavalry stood the elephants and fifty chariots. In front of the right wing the Armenian and

Cappadocian cavalry with fifty scythebearing chariots had been posted. The Greek mercenaries, as alone

capable of coping with the Macedonians, were stationed right opposite their phalanx, in two divisions close

Alexander's army was marshalled as follows: The right wing was held by the cavalry Companions, in front of

whom had been posted the royal squadron, commanded by Clitus, son of Dropidas. Near this was the

squadron of Glaucias, next to it that of Aristo, then that of Sopolis, son of Hermodorus, then that of

Heraclides, son of Antiochus. Near this was that of Demetrius, son of Althaemenes, then that of Meleager,

and last one of the royal squadrons commanded by Hegelochus, son of Hippostratus. All the cavalry

Companions were under the supreme command of Philotas, son of Parmenio. Of the phalanx of Macedonian

infantry, nearest to the cavalry had been posted first the select corps of shieldbearing guards, and then the

rest of the shieldbearing guards, under the command of Nicanor, son of Parmenio. Next to these was the

brigade of Coenus, son of Polemocrates; after these that of Perdiccas, son of Orontes; then that of Meleager,

son of Neoptolemus; then that of Polysperchon, son of Simmias; and last that of Amyntas, son of

Andromenes, under the command of Simmias, because Amyntas had been despatched to Macedonia to levy

an army. The brigade of Craterus, son of Alexander, held the left end of the Macedonian phalanx, and this

general commanded the left wing of the infantry. Next to him was the allied Grecian cavalry under the

command of Erigyius, son of Larichus. Next to these, towards the left wing of the army, were the Thessalian

cavalry, under the command of Philip, son of Menelaus. But the whole left wing was led by Parmenio, son of

Philotas, round whose person were ranged the Pharsalian horsemen, who were both the best and most

12. In this way had Alexander marshalled his army in front; but he also posted a second array, so that his

phalanx might be a double one. Directions had been given to the commanders of these men posted in the rear

to wheel round and receive the attack of the foreigners, if they should see their own comrades surrounded by

the Persian army. Next to the royal squadron on the right wing, half of the Agrianians, under the command of

Attalus, in conjunction with the Macedonian archers under Briso's command, were posted angularwise in

case they should be seized anyhow by the necessity of deepening the phalanx, or of closing up the ranks.

Next to the archers were the men called the veteran mercenaries, whose commander was Cleander. In front of

the Agrianians and archers were posted the light cavalry used for skirmishing, and the Paeonians, under the

command of Aretes and Aristo. In front of all had been posted the Grecian mercenary cavalry under the

direction of Menidas; and in front of the royal squadron of cavalry and the other Companions had been

posted half of the Agrianians and archers, and the javelinmen of Balacrus who had been ranged opposite the

scythebearing chariots. Instructions had been given to Menidas and the troops under him to wheel round and

attack the enemy in flank, if they should ride round their wing. Thus had Alexander arranged matters on the

right wing. On the left the Thracians under the command of Sitalces had been posted angularwise, and near

them the cavalry of the Grecian allies, under the direction of Coeranus. Next stood the Odrysian cavalry,

under the command of Agatho, son of Tyrimmas. In this part, in front of all, were posted the auxiliary cavalry

of the Grecian mercenaries, under the direction of Andromachus, son of Hiero. Near the baggage the infantry

from Thrace were posted as a guard. The whole of Alexander's army numbered 7,000 cavalry and about

13. When the armies drew near each other, Darius and the men around him were observed: the applebearing

Persians, the Indians, the Albanians, the Carians who had been forcibly transported into Central Asia, the

Mardian archers ranged opposite Alexander himself and the royal squadron of cavalry. Alexander led his own

army more towards the right, and the Persians marched along parallel with him, far outflanking him upon

their left. Then the Scythian cavalry rode along the line, and came into conflict with the front men of

Alexander's array; but he nevertheless still continued to march towards the right, and almost entirely got

beyond the ground which had been cleared and levelled by the Persians. Then Darius, fearing that his chariots

would become useless, if the Macedonians advanced into the uneven ground, ordered the front ranks of his

left wing to ride round the right wing of the Macedonians, where Alexander was commanding, to prevent him

from marching his wing any further. This being done, Alexander ordered the cavalry of the Grecian

mercenaries under the command of Menidas to attack them. But the Scythian cavalry and the Bactrians, who

had been drawn up with them, sallied forth against them, and being much more numerous they put the small

body of Greeks to rout. Alexander then ordered Aristo at the head of the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries to

attack the Scythians; and the barbarians gave way. But the rest of the Bactrians, drawing near to the

Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries, caused their own comrades who were already in flight to turn and renew

the battle; and thus they brought about a general cavalry engagement, in which more of Alexander's men fell,

not only being overwhelmed by the multitude of the barbarians, but also because the Scythians themselves

and their horses were much more completely protected with ar mour for guarding their bodies.

Notwithstanding this, the Macedonians sustained their assaults, and assailing them violently squadron by

squadron, they succeeded in pushing them out of rank. Meantime the foreigners launched their

scythebearing chariots against Alexander himself, for the purpose of throwing his phalanx into confusion;

but in this they were grievously deceived. For as soon as they approached, the Agrianians and the

javelinmen with Balacrus, who had been posted in front of the Companion cavalry, hurled their javelins at

some of the horses; others they seized by the reins and pulled the drivers off, and standing round the horses

killed them. Yet some got right through the ranks; for the men stood apart and opened their ranks, as they had

been instructed, in the places where the chariots assaulted them. In this way it generally happened that the

chariots passed through safely, and the men by whom they were driven were uninjured. But these also were

afterwards overpowered by the grooms of Alexander's army and by the royal shieldbearing guards.

14. As soon as Darius began to set his whole phalanx in motion, Alexander ordered Aretes to attack those

who were riding completely round his right wing; and up to that time he was himself leading his men in

column. But when the Persians had made a break in the front line of their army, in consequence of the cavalry

sallying forth to assist those who were surrounding the right wing, Alexander wheeled round towards the gap,

and forming a wedge as it were of the Companion cavalry and of the part of the phalanx which was posted

here, he led them with a quick charge and loud battlecry straight towards Darius himself. For a short time

there ensued a handtohand fight; but when the Macedonian cavalry, commanded by Alexander himself,

pressed on vigorously, thrusting themselves against the Persians and striking their faces with their spears, and

when the Macedonian phalanx in dense array and bristling with long pikes had also made an attack upon

them, all things together appeared full of terror to Darius, who had already long been in a state of fear, so that

he was the first to turn and flee. The Persians also who were riding round the wing were seized with alarm

when Aretes made a vigorous attack upon them. In this quarter indeed the Persians took to speedy flight; and

the Macedonians followed up the fugitives and slaughtered them. Simmias and his brigade were not yet able

to start with Alexander in pursuit, but causing the phalanx to halt there, he took part in the struggle, because

the left wing of the Macedonians was reported to be hard pressed. In this part of the field, their line being

broken, some of the Indians and of the Persian cavalry burst through the gap towards the baggage of the

Macedonians; and there the action became desperate. For the Persians fell boldly on the men, who were most

of them unarmed, and never expected that any men would cut through the double phalanx and break through

upon them. When the Persians made this attack, the foreign prisoners also assisted them by falling upon the

Macedonians in the midst of the action. But the commanders of the men who had been posted as a reserve to

the first phalanx, learning what was taking place, quickly moved from the position which they had been

ordered to take, and coming upon the Persians in the rear, killed many of them there collected round the

baggage. But the rest of them gave way and fled. The Persians on the right wing, who had not yet become

aware of the flight of Darius, rode round Alexander's left wing and attacked Parmenio in flank.

15. At this juncture, the Macedonians being at first in a state of confusion from being attacked on all sides,

Parmenio sent a messenger to Alexander in haste, to tell him that their side was in a critical position and that

he must send him aid. When this news was brought to Alex ander, he turned back again from further pursuit,

and wheeling round with the Companion cavalry, led them with great speed against the right wing of the

foreigners. In the first place he assaulted the fleeing cavalry of the enemy, the Parthians, some of the Indians,

and the most numer ous and the bravest division of the Persians. Then ensued the most obstinately contested

cavalry fight in the whole engagement. For being drawn up by squadrons, the foreigners wheeled round in

deep columns, and falling on Alexander's men face to face, they no longer relied on the hurling of javelins or

the dexterous deploying of horses, as is the common practice in cavalry battles, but every one of his own

account strove eagerly to break through what stood in his way, as their only means of safety. They struck and

were struck without quarter, as they were no longer struggling to secure the victory for another, but were

contending for their own personal safety. Here about sixty of Alexander's Companions fell; and Hephaestion

himself, as well as Coenus and Menidas, was wounded. But these troops also were overcome by Alex ander;

and as many of them as could force their way through his ranks fled with all their might. And now Alexander

had nearly come into conflict with the enemy's right wing; but in the meantime the Thessalian cavalry in a

splendid struggle, were not falling short of Alexander's suc cess in the engagement. For the foreigners on the

right wing were already beginning to fly when he came on the scene of conflict; so that he wheeled round

again and started off in pursuit of Darius once more, keeping up the chase as long as there was daylight.

Parmenio's brigade also followed in pursuit of those who were opposed to them. But Alexander crossed the

river Lycus and pitched his camp there, to give his men and horses a little rest; while Parmenio seized the

Persian camp with their baggage, elephants, and camels. After giving his horsemen rest until midnight,

Alexander again advanced by a forced march to wards Arbela, with the hope of seizing Darius there, together

with his money and the rest of his royal property. He reached Arbela the next day, having pursued altogether

about seventy miles from the battle field. But as Darius went on fleeing without taking any rest, he did not

find him at Arbela. However the money and all the other property were captured, as was also the chariot of

Darius a second time. His spear and bow were likewise taken, as had been the case after the battle of Issus.

Of Alexander's menabout 100 were killed, and more than 1,000 of his horses were lost either from wounds

or from fatigue in the pursuit, nearly half of them belonging to the Companion cavalry. Of the for eigners

there were said to have been about 300,000 slain, and far more were taken prisoners than were killed. The

elephants and all the chariots which had not been destroyed in the battle were also captured. Such was the

result of this battle, which was fought in the archonship of Aristophanes at Athens, in the month

Pyanepsion;[15] and thus Aristan der's prediction was accomplished, that Alexander would both fight a battle

16. Immediately after the battle, Darius marched through the mountains of Armenia towards Media,

accompanied in his flight by the Bactrian cavalry, as they had then been posted with him in the battle; also by

those Persians who were called the king's kinsmen, and by a few of the men called applebearers. About

2,000 of his Grecian mercenaries also accompanied him in his flight, under the command of Paron the

Phocian, and Glaucus the Aetolian. He fled towards Media for this rea son, because he thought Alexander

would take the road to Susa and Babylon immediately after the battle, inasmuch as the whole of that country

was inhabited and the road was not difficult for the transit of baggage; and besides Babylon and Susa

appeared to be the prizes of the war; whereas the road t.owards Media was by no means easy for the march of

1. Son of Amyntas, a Macedonian of Pella. He was the most intimate friend of Alexander, with whom he had

3. Lysippus of Sicyon was one of the most famous of sculptors. Ale~ander pub lished an edict that no one

should paint his portrait but Apelles, that no one should make a statue of him but Lysippus, and that no one

5. According to the old saying, a friend is a second self; friends are one soul in two bodies.

7. The island was about half a mile from the mainland, and about a mile in length

12. The Red Sea was the name originally given to the whole expanse of sea to the west of India as far as

Africa. The name was subsequently given to the Arabian Gulf exclusively. Arrian calls the Persian Gulf by

this name, as do also Xenophon and Diodorus. This gulf was unknown to Herodotus.

13. The Greeks called this country Mesopotamia because it lies between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris.

1. When Alexander arrived at Pasargadae and Persepolis, he was seized with an ardent desire to sail down the

Euphrates and Tigris to the Persian Sea, and to see the mouths of those rivers as he had already seen those of

the Indus as well as the sea into which it flows. Some authors also have stated that he was meditating a

voyage round the larger portion of Arabia, the country of the Ethiopians, Libya, and Numidia beyond Mount

Atlas to Gadeira, inward into our sea; thinking that after he had subdued both Libya and Carchedon, then

indeed he might with justice be called king of all Asia. For he said that the kings of the Persians and Medes

called themselves Great Kings without any right, since they ruled a comparatively small part of Asia. Some

say that he was meditating a voyage thence into the Euxine Sea, to Scythia and the Lake Maeotis; while

others assert that he intended to go to Sicily and the Iapygian Cape, for the fame of the Romans spreading far

and wide was now exciting his jealousy. For my own part I cannot conjecture with any certainty what were

his plans; and I do not care to guess. But this I think I can confidently affirm, that he meditated nothing small

or mean; and that he would never have remained satisfied with any of the acquisitions he had made, even if

he had added Europe to Asia, or the islands of the Britons to Europe; but would still have gone on seeking for

some unknown land beyond those mentioned. I verily believe that if he had found no one else to strive with,

4. ....In Susa, he celebrated both his own wedding and those of his companions. He himself married Barsine,

the eldest daughter of Darius, and according to Aristobulus, besides her another, Parysatis, the youngest

daughter of Ochus. He had already married Roxana, daughter of Oxyartes the Bactrian. To Hephaestion he

gave Drypetis, another daughter of Darius, and his own wife's sister; for he wished Hephaestion's children to

be first cousins to his own. To Craterus he gave Amastrine, daughter of Oxyartes the brother of Darius; to

Perdiccas, the daughter of Atropates, viceroy of Media; to Ptolemy the confidential bodyguard, and

Eumenes the royal secretary, the daughters of Artabazus, to the former Artacama, and to the latter Artonis. To

Nearchus he gave the daughter of Barsine and Mentor; to Seleucus the daughter of Spitamenes the Bactrian.

Likewise to the rest of his Companions he gave the choicest daughters of the Persians and Medes, to the

number of eighty. The weddings were celebrated after the Persian manner, seats being placed in a row for the

bridegrooms; and after the banquet the brides came in and seated themselves, each one near her own husband.

The bridegrooms took them by the right hand and kissed them; the king being the first to begin, for the

weddings of all were conducted in the same way. This appeared the most popular thing which Alexander ever

did; and it proved his affection for his Companions. Each man took his own bride and led her away; and on

all without exception Alexander bestowed doweries, He also ordered that the names of all the other

Macedonians who had married any of the Asiatic women should be registered. They were over 10,000 in

5. He now thought it a favourable opportunity to liquidate the debts of all the soldiers who had incurred them;

and for this purpose he ordered that a register should be made of how much each man owed, in order that

they might receive the money. At first only a few registered their names, fearing that this had been instituted

as a test by Alexander, to discover which of the soldiers found their pay insufficient for their expenses, and

which of them were extravagant in their mode of living. When he was informed that most of them were not

registering their names, but that those who had borrowed money on bonds were concealing the fact, he

reproached them for their distrust of him. For he said that it was not right either that the king should deal

otherwise than sincerely with his subjects, or that any of those ruled by him should think that he would deal

otherwise than sincerely with them. Accordingly, he had tables placed in the camp with money upon them;

and he appointed men to manage the distribution of it. He ordered the debts of all who showed a

moneybond to be liquidated without the debtors' names being any longer registered. Consequently, the men

believed that Alexander was dealing sincerely with them; and the fact that they were not known was a greater

pleasure to them than the fact that they ceased to be in debt. This presentation to the army is said to have

amounted to 20,000 talents. He also gave presents to particular individuals, according as each man was held

in honour for his merit or valour, if he had become conspicuous in crises of danger. Those who were

distinguished for their personal gallantry he crowned with golden chaplets: first, Peucestas, the man who had

held the shield over him; second, Leonnatus, who also had held his shield over him, and moreover had

incurred dangers in India and won a victory in Ora. For he had posted himself with the forces left with him

against the Oritians and the tribes living near them, who were trying to effect a revolution, and had conquered

them in battle. He also seemed to have managed other affairs in Ora with great success. In addition to these,

he crowned Nearchus for his successful voyage round the coast from the land of the Indians through the

Great Sea; for this officer had now arrived at Susa. Besides these three, he crowned Onesicritus, the pilot of

the royal ship; as well as Hephaestion and the rest of the confidential bodyguards.

6. The viceroys from the newlybuilt cities and the rest of the territory subdued in war came to him, bringing

with them youths just growing into manhood to the number of 30,000, all of the same age, whom Alexander

called Epigoni. They had been accoutred with Macedonian arms, and exercised in military discipline after the

Macedonian system. The arrival of these is said to have vexed the Macedonians, who thought that Alexander

was contriving every means in his power to free himself from future need of their services. For the same

reason also the sight of his Median dress was no small cause of dissatisfaction to them; and the . weddings

celebrated in the Persian fashion were displeasing to most of ; them, even including some of those who

married, although they had been greatly honoured by their being put on the same level with the king in the

marriage ceremony. They were offended at Peucestas, the !. satrap of Persist on account of his Persianizing

both in dress and in t speech, because the king was delighted by his adopting the Asiatic customs. They were

disgusted that the Bactrian, Sogdianian, Arachotian, Zarangian, Arian, and Parthian horsemen, as well as the

Persian horsemen called the Evacae, had been distributed among the squadrons of the Companion cavalry; as

many of them at least as were seen to excel in reputation, fineness of stature, or any other good quality; and

that a fifth cavalry division was added to these troops, not composed entirely of foreigners; but the whole

body of cavalry was increased in number, and men were picked from the foreigners and put into it. Cophen,

son of Artabazus, Hydarnes and Artiboles, sons of Mazaeus, Sisines and Phradasmenes, sons of

Phrataphernes, viceroy of Parthia and Hyrcania, Histanes, son of Oxyartes and brother of Alexander's wife,

Roxane, as well as Autobares and his brother Mithrobaeus were picked out and enrolled among the

footguard in addition to the Macedonian officers. Over these Hystaspes the Bactrian was placed as

commander; and Macedonian spears were given to them instead of the barbarian javelins which had thongs

attached to them. All this offended the Macedonians, who thought that Alexander was becoming altogether

Asiatic in his ideas, and was holding the Macedonians themselves as well as their customs in a position of

8.When he arrived at Opis, he collected the Macedonians and announced that he intended to discharge from

the army those who were useless for military service either from age or from being maimed in the limbs; and

he said he would send them back to their own abodes. He also promised to give those who went back as

much extra reward as would make them special objects of envy to those at home and arouse in the other

Macedonians the wish to share similar dangers and labours. Alexander said this, no doubt, for the purpose of

pleasing the Macedonians; but on the contrary they were, not without reason, offended by the speech which

he delivered, thinking that now they were despised by him and deemed to be quite useless for military

service. Indeed, throughout the whole of this expedition they had been offended at many other things; for his

adoption of the Persian dress, thereby exhibiting his contempt for their opinion often caused them grief, as

did also his accoutring the foreign soldiers called Epigoni in the Macedonian style, and the mixing of the

alien horsemen among the ranks of the Companions. Therefore they could not remain silent and control

themselves, but urged him to dismiss all of them from his army; and they advised him to prosecute the war in

company with his father, deriding Amman by this remark. When Alexander heard this (for at that time he was

more hasty in temper than heretofore, and no longer, as of old, indulgent to the Macedonians from having a

retinue of foreign attendants), leaping down from the platform with his officers around him, he ordered the

most conspicuous of the men who had tried to stir up the multitude to sedition to be arrested. He himself

pointed out with his hand to the shieldbearing guards those whom they were to arrest, to the number of

thirteen; and he ordered these to be led away to execution. When the rest, stricken with terror, became silent,

9. "The speech which I am about to deliver will not be for the purpose of checking your start homeward, for,

so far as I am concerned, you may depart wherever you wish; but for the purpose of making you understand

when you take yourselves off, what kind of men. you have been to us who have conferred such benefits upon

you. In the first place, as is reasonable, I shall begin my speech from my father Philip. For he found you

vagabonds and destitute of means, most of you clad in hides, feeding a few sheep up the mountain sides, for

the protection of which you had to fight with small success against Illyrians, Triballians, and the border

Thracians. Instead of the hides he gave you cloaks to wear, and from the mountains he led you down into the

plains, and made you capable of fighting the neighbouring barbarians, so that you were no longer compelled

to preserve yourselves by trusting rather to the inaccessible strongholds than to your own valour. He made

you colonists of cities, which he adorned with useful laws and customs; and from being slaves and subjects,

he made you rulers over those very barbarians by whom you yourselves, as well as your property, were

previously liable to be carried off or ravaged. He also added the greater part of Thrace to Macedonia, and by

seizing the most conveniently situated places on the seacoast, he spread abundance over the land from

commerce, and made the working of the mines a secure employment. He made you rulers over the

Thessalians, of whom you had formerly been in mortal fear; and by humbling the nation of the Phocians, he

rendered the avenue into Greece broad and easy for you, instead of being narrow and difficult. The Athenians

and Thebans, who were always lying in wait to attack Macedonia, he humbled to such a degree, I also then

rendering him my personal aid in the campaign, that instead of paying tribute to the former and being vassals

to the latter, those States in their turn procure security to themselves by our assistance. He penetrated into the

Peloponnese, and after regulating its affairs, was publicly declared commanderinchief of all the rest of

Greece in the expedition against the Persian, adding this glory not more to himself than to the commonwealth

of the Macedonians. These were the advantages which accrued to you from my father Philip; great indeed if

looked at by themselves, but small if compared with those you have obtained from me. For though I inherited

from my father only a few gold and silver goblets, and there were not even sixty talents in the treasury, and

though I found myself charged with a debt of 500 talents owing by Philip, and I was obliged myself to

borrow 800 talents in addition to these, I started from the country which could not decently support you, and

forthwith laid open to you the passage of the Hellespont, though at that time the Persians held the sovereignty

of the sea. Having overpowered the satraps of Darius with my cavalry, I added to your empire the whole of

Ionia, the whole of Aeolis, both Phrygias and Lydia, and I took Miletus by siege. All the other places I gained

by voluntary surrender, and I granted you the privilege of appropriating the wealth found in them. The riches

of Egypt and Cyrene, which I acquired without fighting a battle, have come to you. CoeleSyria, Palestine,

and Mesopotamia are your property. Babylon, Bactra, and Susa are yours. The wealth of the Lydians, the

treasures of the Persians, and the riches of the Indians are yours; and so is the External Sea. You are viceroys,

you are generals, you are captains. What then have I reserved to myself after all these labours, except this

purple robe and this diadem? I have appropriated nothing myself, nor can any one point out my treasures,

except these possessions of yours or the things which I am guarding on your behalf. Individually, however, I

have no motive to guard them, since I feed on the same fare as you do, and I take only the same amount of

sleep. Nay, I do not think that my fare is as good as that of those among you who live luxuriously; and I

know that I often sit up at night to watch for you, that you may be able to sleep.

10. "But some one may say, that while you endured toil and fatigue, I have acquired these things as your

leader without myself sharing the toil and fatigue. But who is there of you who knows that he has endured

greater toil for me than I have for him? Come now, whoever of you has wounds, let him strip and show them,

and I will show mine in turn; for there is no part of my body, in front at any rate, remaining free from

wounds; nor is there any kind of weapon used either for close combat or for hurling at the enemy, the traces

of which I do not bear on my person. For I have been wounded with the sword in close fight, I have been shot

with arrows, and I have been struck with missiles projected from engines of war; and though oftentimes I

have been hit with stones and bolts of wood for the sake of your lives, your glory, and your wealth, I am still

leading you as conquerors over all the land and sea, all rivers, mountains, and plains. I have celebrated your

weddings with my own, and the children of many of you will be akin to my children. Moreover I have

liquidated of all those who had incurred them, without inquiring too closely for what purpose they were

contracted, though you received such high pay, and carry off so much booty whenever there is booty to be got

after a siege. Most of you have golden crowns, the eternal memorials of your valour and of the honour you

receive from me. Whoever has been killed has met with a glorious end and has been honoured with a

splendid burial. Brazen statues of most of the slain have been erected at home, and their parents are held in

honour) being released from all public service and from taxation. But no one of you has ever been killed in

flight under my leadership. And now I was intending to send back those of you who are unfit for service,

objects of envy to those at home; but since you all wish to depart, depart all of you! Go back and report at

home that your king Alexander, the conqueror of the Persians, Medes, Bactrians, and Sacians; the man who

has subjugated the Uxians, Arachotians, and Drangians; who has also acquired the rule of the Parthians,

Chorasmians, and Hyrcanians, as far as the Caspian Sea; who has marched over the Caucasus, through the

Caspian Gates; who has crossed the rivers Oxus and Tanais, and the Indus besides, which has never been

crossed by any one else except Dionysus ; who has also crossed the Hydaspes, Acesines, and Hydraotes, and

who would have crossed the Hyphasis, if you had not shrunk back with alarm; who has penetrated into the

Great Sea by both the mouths of the Indus; who has marched through the desert of Gadrosia, where no one

ever before marched with an army; who on his route acquired possession of Carmania and the land of the

Oritians, in addition to his other conquests, his Beet having in the meantime already sailed round the coast of

the sea which extends from India to Persiareport that when you returned to Susa you deserted him and went

away, handing him over to the protection of conquered foreigners. Perhaps this report of yours will be both

glorious to you in the eyes of men and devout I ween in the eyes of the gods. Depart!"

11. Having thus spoken, he leaped down quickly from the platform, and entered the palace, where he paid no

attention to the decoration of his person, nor was any of his Companions admitted to see him. Not even on the

morrow was any one of them admitted to an audience; but on the third day he summoned the select Persians

within, and among them he distributed the commands of the brigades, and made the rule that only those

whom he proclaimed his kinsmen should have the honour of saluting him with a kiss. But the Macedonians

who heard the speech were thoroughly astonished at the moment, and remained there in silence near the

platform; nor when he retired did any of them accompany the king, except his personal Companions and the

bodyguards. Though they remained most of them had nothing to do or say; and yet they were unwilling to

retire. But when the news was reported to them about the Persians and Medes, that the military commands

were being given to Persians, that the foreign soldiers were being selected and divided into companies, that a

Persian footguard, Persian foot Companions, a Persian regiment of men with silver shields, as well as the

cavalry Companions, and another royal guard of cavalry distinct from these, were being called by the

Macedonian names, they were no longer able to restrain themselves; but running in a body to the palace, they

cast their weapons there in front of the gates as signs of supplication to the king. Standing in front of the

gates, they shouted, beseeching to be allowed to enter, and saying that they were willing to surrender the men

who had been the instigators of the disturbance on that occasion, and those who had begun the clamour. They

also declared they would not retire from the gates either day or night, unless Alexander would take some pity

upon them. When he was informed of this, he came out without delay; and seeing them lying on the ground

in humble guise, and hearing most of them lamenting with loud voice, tears began to HOW also from his own

eyes. He made an effort to say something to them, but they continued their importunate entreaties. At length

one of them, Callines by name, a man conspicuous both for his age and because he was a captain of the

Companion cavalry, spoke as follows, "O Icing, what grieves the Macedonians is that you have already made

some of the Persians kinsmen to yourself, and that Persians are called Alexander's kinsmen, and have the

honour of saluting you with a kiss; whereas none of the Macedonians have as yet enjoyed this honour." Then

Alexander interrupting him, said, "But all of you without exception I consider my kinsmen, and so from this

time I shall call you." When he had said this, Callines advanced and saluted him with a kiss, and so did all

those who wished to salute him. Then they took up their weapons and returned to the camp, shouting and

singing a song of thanksgiving. After this Alexander offered sacrifice to the gods to whom it was his custom

to sacrifice, and gave a public banquet, over which he himself presided, with the Macedonians sitting around

him; and next to them the Persians; after whom came the men of the other nations, preferred in honour for

their personal rank or for some meritorious action. The king and his guests drew wine from the same bowl

and poured out the same libations, both the Grecian prophets and the Magians commencing the ceremony. He

prayed for other blessings, and especially that harmony and community of rule might exist between the

Macedonians and Persians. The common account is, that those who took part in this banquet were 9,000 in

number, that all of them poured out one libation, and after it sang a song of thanksgiving.

12. Then those of the Macedonians who were unfit for service on account of age or any other misfortune

went back of their own accord, to the number of about 10,000. To these Alexander gave the pay not only for

the time which had already elapsed, but also for that which they would take in returning home. He also gave

to each man a talent in addition to his pay. If any of them had children by Asiatic wives, he ordered them to

leave them behind with him, lest they should introduce into Macedonia a cause of discord, taking with them

children by foreign women who were of a different race from the children whom they had left behind at home

born of Macedonian mothers. He promised to take care that they should be brought up as Macedonians,

educating them not only in general matters but also in the art of war. He also undertook to lead them into

Macedonia when they arrived at manhood, and hand them over to their fathers. These uncertain and obscure

promises were made to them as they were departing; and he thought he was giving a most indubitable proof

of the friendship and affection he had for them by sending with them, as their guardian and the leader of the

expedition, Craterus, the man most faithful to him, and whom he valued equally with himself. Then, having

saluted them all, he with tears dismissed them likewise weeping from his presence. He ordered Craterus to

lead these men back, and when he had done so, to take upon himself the government of Macedonia, Thrace,

and Thessaly, and to preside over the freedom of the Greeks. He also ordered Antipater to bring to him the

Macedonians of manly age as successors to those who were being sent back. He despatched Polysperchon

also with Craterus, as his second in command, so that if any mishap befell Craterus on the march (for he was

sending him back on account of the weakness of his health), those who were going might not be in need of a

general. A secret report was also going about that Alexander was now overcome by his mother's accusations

of Antipater, and that he wished to remove him from Macedonia. This report was current among those who

interpret royal actions more jealously the more they are concealed, and who are inclined to construe fidelity

into something bad rather than to accept it as real; a course to which they are led by appearances and their

own depravity. But perhaps this sending for Antipater was not designed for his dishonour, but rather to

prevent any unpleasant consequences to Antipater and Olympias from their quarrel which he might not

himself be able to rectify. For they were incessantly writing to Alexander, the former saying that the

arrogance, acerbity, and meddlesomeness of Olympias was exceedingly unbecoming to the king's mother;

insomuch that Alexander was related to have used the following remark in reference to the reports which he

received about his mother: that she was exacting from him a heavy houserent for the ten months. The queen

wrote that Antipater was overweeningly insolent in his pretensions to sovereignty as well as in the service of

his court, no longer remembering the one who had appointed him, but claiming to win and hold the first rank

among the Greeks and even the Macedonians. These slanderous reports about Antipater appeared to have

more weight with Alexander, since they were more formidable in regard to the regal dignity. However, no

overt act or word of the king was reported, from which any one could infer that Antipater was in any way less

24. But Alexander's own end was now near. Aristobulus says that the following occurrence was a

prognostication of what was about to happen. He was distributing the army which came with Peucestas from

Persia, and that which came with Philoxenus and Menander from the sea, among the Macedonian lines, and

becoming thirsty he retired from his seat and thus left the royal throne empty. On each side of the throne were

couches with silver feet, upon which his personal Companions were sitting. A certain man of obscure

condition (some say that he was even once of the men kept under guard without being in chains), seeing the

throne and the couches empty, and the eunuchs standing round the throne (for the Companions also rose up

from their seats with the king when he retired), walked through the line of eunuchs, ascended the throne, and

sat down upon it. According to a Persian law, they did not make him rise from the throne; but rent their

When Alexander was informed of this, he ordered the man who had sat upon his throne to be put to the

torture, with the view of discovering whether he had done this according to a plan concerted by a conspiracy.

But the man confessed nothing, except that it came into his mind at the time to act thus. Even more for this

reason the diviners explained that this occurrence boded no good to him. A few days after this, after offering

to the gods the customary sacrifices for good success, and certain others also for the purpose of divination, he

was feasting with his friends, and was drinking far into the night. He is also said to have distributed the

sacrificial victims as well as a quantity of wine to the army throughout the companies and centuries. There

are some who have recorded that he wished to retire after the drinking party to his bedchamber; but Medius,

at that time the most influential of the Companions, met him and begged him to join a party of revellers at his

25. The Royal Diary gives the following account, to the effect that he revelled and drank at the dwelling of

Medius; then rose up, took a bath, and slept; then again supped at the house of Medius and again drank till far

into the night. After retiring from the drinking party he took a bath; after which he took a little food and slept

there, because he already felt feverish. He was carried out upon a couch to the sacrifices, in order that he

might offer them according to his daily custom. After placing the sacrifices upon the altar he lay down in the

banqueting hall until dusk. In the meantime he gave instructions to the officers about the expedition and

voyage, ordering those who were going on foot to be ready on the fourth day, and those who were going to

sail with him to be ready to sail on the fifth day. From this place he was carried upon the couch to the river,

where he embarked in a boat and sailed across the river to the park. There he again took a bath and went to

On the following day he took another bath and offered the customary sacrifices. He then entered a tester bed,

lay down, and chatted with Medius. He also ordered his officers to meet him at daybreak. Having done this

he ate a little supper and was again conveyed into the tester bed. The fever now raged the whole night without

intermission. The next day he took a bath; after which he offered sacrifice, and gave orders to Nearchus and

the other officers that the voyage should begin on the third day. The next day he bathed again and offered the

prescribed sacrifices. After placing the sacrifices upon the altar he did not yet keep quiet though suffering

from the fever. Notwithstanding this, he summoned the officers and gave them instructions to have all things

ready for the starting of the fleet. In the evening he took a bath, after which he was very ill. The next day he

was transferred to the house near the swimmingbath, where he offered the prescribed sacrifices. Though he

was now very dangerously ill, he summoned the most responsible of his officers and gave them fresh

instructions about the voyage. On the following day he was with difficulty carried out to the sacrifices, which

he offered; he none the less gave other orders to the officers about the voyage. The next day, though he was

now very ill, he offered the prescribed sacrifices. He now gave orders that the generals should remain in

attendance in the hall, and that the colonels and captains should remain before the gates. But being now

altogether in a dangerous state, he was conveyed from the park into the palace. When his officers entered the

room, he knew them indeed, but no longer uttered a word, being speechless. During the ensuing night and

26. Such is the account given in the Royal Diary. In addition to this, it states that the soldiers were very

desirous of seeing him; some, in order to see him once more while still alive; others, because there was a

report that he was already dead, imagined that his death was being concealed by the confidential

bodyguards, as I for my part suppose. Most of them through grief and affection for their king forced their

way in to see him. It is said that when his soldiers passed by him he was unable to speak; yet he greeted each

of them with his right hand, raising his head with difficulty and making a sign with his eyes. The Royal Diary

also says that Peithon, Attains, Demophon, and Peucestas, as well as Cleomenes, Menidas, and Seleucus,

slept in the temple of Serapis, and asked the god whether it would be better and more desirable for Alexander

to be carried into his temple, in order as a suppliant to be cured by him. A voice issued from the god saying

that he was not to be carried into the temple, but that it would be better for him to remain where be was. This

answer was reported by the Companions; and soon after Alexander died, as if after all, this were now the

better thing. Neither Aristobulus nor Ptolemy has given an account differing much from the preceding. Some

authors, however, have related that his Companions asked him to whom he left his kingdom; and that he

replied, "To the best." Others say, that in addition to this remark, he told them that he saw there would be a

27. I am aware that many other particulars have been related by historians concerning Alexander's death, and

especially that poison was sent for him by Antipater, from the effects of which he died. It is also asserted that

the poison was procured for Antipater by Aristotle, who was now afraid of Alexander on account of

Callisthenes. It is said to have been conveyed by Casander, the son of Antipater, some recording that he

conveyed it in the hoof of a mule, and that his younger brother Iollas gave it to the king. For this man was the

royal cupbearer, and he happened to have received some affront from Alexander a short time before his

death. Others have stated that Medius, being a lover of Iollas, took part in the deed; for he it was who induced

the king to hold the revel. They say that Alexander was seized with an acute paroxysm of pain over the

winecup, on feeling which he retired from the drinking bout. One writer has not even been ashamed to

record that when Alexander perceived he was unlikely to survive, he was going out to throw himself into the

river Euphrates, so that he might disappear from men's sight, and leave among the men of aftertimes a more

firmlyrooted opinion that he owed his birth to a god, and had departed to the gods. But as he was going out

he did not escape the notice of his wife Roxana, who restrained him from carrying out his design. Whereupon

he uttered lamentations, saying that she envied him the complete glory of being thought the offspring of the

god. These statements I have recorded rather that I may not seem to be ignorant that they have been made,

28. Alexander died in the 114th Olympiad, in the archonship of Hegesias at Athens. According to the

statement of Aristobulus, he lived thirtytwo years, and had reached the eighth month of his thirtythird year.

He had reigned twelve years and these eight months. He was very handsome in person, and much devoted to

exertion, very active in mind, very heroic in courage, very tenacious of honour, exceedingly fond of incurring

danger, and strictly observant of his duty to the deity. In regard to the pleasures of the body, he had perfect

selfcontrol; and of those of the mind, praise was the only one of which he was insatiable, He was very

clever in recognising what was necessary to be done, when others were still in a state of uncertainty; and very

successful in conjecturing from the observation of facts what was likely to occur. In marshalling, arming, and

ruling an army, he was exceedingly skillful; and very renowned for rousing the courage of his soldiers, filling

them with hopes of success, and dispelling their fear in the midst of danger by his own freedom from fear.

Therefore even what he had to do in uncertainty of the result he did with the greatest boldness. He was also

very clever in getting the start of his enemies, and snatching from them their advantages by secretly

forestalling them, before any one even feared what was about to happen. He was likewise very steadfast in

keeping the agreements and settlements which he made, as well as very secure from being entrapped by

deceivers. Finally, he was very sparing in the expenditure of money for the gratification of his own pleasures;

but he was exceedingly bountiful in spending it for the benefit of his associates.

29. That Alexander should have committed errors in conduct from impetuosity or from wrath, and that he

should have been induced to comport himself like the Persian monarchs to an immoderate degree, I do not

think remarkable if we fairly consider both his youth and his uninterrupted career of good fortune; likewise

that kings have associates for the gratification of pleasure, and that they will always have associates urging

them to do wrong, but caring nothing for their best interests. However, I am certain that Alexander was the

only one of the ancient kings who, from nobility of character, repented of the errors which he had committed.

The majority of men, even if they have became conscious that they have committed an error, make the

mistake of thinking that they can conceal their sin by defending their error as if it had been a just action. But

it seems to me that the only cure for sin is for the sinner to confess it, and to be visibly repentant in regard to

it. Thus the suffering will not appear altogether intolerable to those who have suffered unpleasant treatment,

if the person who inflicted it confesses that he has acted dishonourably; and this good hope for the future is

left to the man himself, that he will never again commit a similar sin, if he is seen to be vexed at his former

errors. I do not think that even his tracing his origin to a god was a great error on Alexander's part, if it was

not perhaps merely a device to induce his subjects to show him reverence. Nor does he seem to me to have

been a less renowned king than Minos, Aeacus, or Rhadamanthus, to whom no insolence is attributed by the

men of old because they traced their origin to Zeus. Nor does he seem at all inferior to Theseus or Ion, the

former being the reputed son of Poseidon, and the latter of Apollo. His adoption of the Persian mode of

dressing also seems to me to have been a political device in regard to the foreigners, that the king might not

appear altogether alien to them; and in regard to the Macedonians, to show them that he had a refuge from

their rashness of temper and insolence. For this reason I think, he mixed the Persian royal guards, who carried

golden apples at the end of their spears, among the ranks of the Macedonians, and the Persian peers with the

Macedonian bodyguards. Aristobulus also asserts that Alexander used to have long drinking parties, not for

the purpose of enjoying the wine, as he was not a great winedrinker, but in order to exhibit his sociality and

30. Whoever therefore reproaches Alexander as a bad man, let him do so; but let him first not only bring

before his mind all his actions deserving reproach, but also gather into one view all his deeds of every kind.

Then, indeed, let him reflect who he is himself, and what kind of fortune he has experienced; and then

consider who that man was whom he reproaches as bad, and to what a height of human success he attained,

becoming without any dispute king of both continents," and reaching every place by his fame; while he

himself who reproaches him is of smaller account, spending his labour on petty objects, which, however, he

does not succeed in effecting, petty as they are. For my own part, I think there was at that time no race of

men, no city, nor even a single individual to whom Alexander's name and fame had not penetrated. For this

reason it seems to me that a hero totally unlike any other human being could not have been born without the

agency of the deity. And this is said to have been revealed after Alexander's death by the oracular responses,

by the visions which presented themselves to various people, and by the dreams which were seen by different

individuals. It is also shown by the honour given to him by men up to the present time, and by the

remembrance which is still held of him as more than human. Even at the present time, after so long an

interval, other oracular responses in his honour have been given to the nation of the Macedonians. In relating

the history of Alexander's achievements, there are some things which I have been compelled to censure; but I

am not ashamed to admire Alexander himself. Those actions I have branded as bad, both from a regard to my

own veracity, and at the same time for the benefit of mankind. For this reason I myself undertook the task of