Men of Invention and Industry ..........................................................................................................................1

Samuel Smiles ..........................................................................................................................................1

PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................1

CHAPTER I. PHINEAS PETT: BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH SHIPBUILDING.............................2

PROPELLER........................................................................................................................................22

ENGLAND...........................................................................................................................................45

CHAPTER V. WILLIAM MURDOCK: HIS LIFE AND INVENTIONS...........................................51

MACHINE. ...........................................................................................................................................65

CHAPTER IX. CHARLES BIANCONI: A LESSON OF SELFHELP IN IRELAND. .....................91

BELFAST............................................................................................................................................105

CHAPTER XI. SHIPBUILDING IN BELFASTITS ORIGIN AND PROGRESS........................119

CHAPTER XII. ASTRONOMERS AND STUDENTS IN HUMBLE LIFE:....................................132

I offer this book as a continuation of the memoirs of men of invention and industry published some years ago

The early chapters relate to the history of a very important branch of British industrythat of Shipbuilding.

A later chapter, kindly prepared by Sir Edward J. Harland, of Belfast, relates to the origin and progress of

Many of the facts set forth in the Life and Inventions of William Murdock have already been published in my

'Lives of Boulton and Watt;" but these are now placed in a continuous narrative, and supplemented by other

information, more particularly the correspondence between Watt and Murdock, communicated to me by the

present representative of the family, Mr. Murdock, C.E, of Gilwern, near Abergavenny.

I have also endeavoured to give as accurate an account as possible of the Invention of the Steamprinting

Press, and its application to the production of Newspapers and Books,an invention certainly of great

importance to the spread of knowledge, science, and literature, throughout the world.

The chapter on the "Industry of Ireland" will speak for itself. It occurred to me, on passing through Ireland

last year, that much remained to be said on that subject; and, looking to the increasing means of the country,

and the wellknown industry of its people, it seems reasonable to expect, that with peace, security, energy,

and diligent labour of head and hand, there is really a great future before Ireland.

The last chapter, on "Astronomers in Humble Life," consists for the most part of a series of Autobiographies.

It may seem, at first sight, to have little to do with the leading object of the book; but it serves to show what a

number of active, earnest, and able men are comparatively hidden throughout society, ready to turn their

hands and heads to the improvement of their own characters, if not to the advancement of the general

In conclusion, I say to the reader, as Quarles said in the preface to his 'Emblems,' "I wish thee as much

pleasure in the reading as I had in the writing." In fact, the last three chapters were in some measure the cause

In one of the few records of Sir Isaac Newton's life which he left for the benefit of others, the following

"It is certainly apparent that the inhabitants of this world are of a short date, seeing that all arts, as letters,

If this were true in Newton's time, how much truer is it now. Most of the inventions which are so greatly

influencing, as well as advancing, the civilization of the world at the present time, have been discovered

within the last hundred or hundred and fifty years. We do not say that man has become so much wiser during

that period; for, though he has grown in Knowledge, the most fruitful of all things were said by "the heirs of

But as regards Physical Science, the progress made during the last hundred years has been very great. Its

most recent triumphs have been in connection with the discovery of electric power and electric light. Perhaps

the most important invention, however, was that of the working steam engine, made by Watt only about a

hundred years ago. The most recent application of this form of energy has been in the propulsion of ships,

which has already produced so great an effect upon commerce, navigation, and the spread of population over

Equally important has been the influence of the Railwaynow the principal means of communication in all

civilized countries. This invention has started into full life within our own time. The locomotive engine had

for some years been employed in the haulage of coals; but it was not until the opening of the Liverpool and

Manchester Railway in 1830, that the importance of the invention came to be acknowledged. The locomotive

railway has since been everywhere adopted throughout Europe. In America, Canada, and the Colonies, it has

opened up the boundless resources of the soil, bringing the country nearer to the towns, and the towns to the

country. It has enhanced the celerity of time, and imparted a new series of conditions to every rank of life.

The importance of steam navigation has been still more recently ascertained. When it was first proposed, Sir

Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society, said: "It is a pretty plan, but there is just one point overlooked:

that the steamengine requires a firm basis on which to work." Symington, the practical mechanic, put this

theory to the test by his successful experiments, first on Dalswinton Lake, and then on the Forth and Clyde

Canal. Fulton and Bell afterwards showed the power of steamboats in navigating the rivers of America and

After various experiments, it was proposed to unite England and America by steam. Dr. Lardner, however,

delivered a lecture before the Royal Institution in 1838, "proving" that steamers could never cross the

Atlantic, because they could not carry sufficient coal to raise steam enough during the voyage. But this theory

was also tested by experience in the same year, when the Sirius, of London, left Cork for New York, and

made the passage in nineteen days. Four days after the departure of the Sirius, the Great Western left Bristol

for New York, and made the passage in thirteen days five hours.[1] The problem was solved; and great ocean

steamers have ever since passed in continuous streams between the shores of England and America.

In an age of progress, one invention merely paves the way for another. The first steamers were impelled by

means of paddle wheels; but these are now almost entirely superseded by the screw. And this, too, is an

invention almost of yesterday. It was only in 1840 that the Archimedes was fitted as a screw yacht.

A few years later, in 1845, the Great Britain, propelled by the screw, left Liverpool for New York, and made

the voyage in fourteen days. The screw is now invariably adopted in all long ocean voyages.

It is curious to look back, and observe the small beginnings of maritime navigation. As regards this country,

though its institutions are old, modern England is still young. As respects its mechanical and scientific

achievements, it is the youngest of all countries. Watt's steam engine was the beginning of our manufacturing

supremacy; and since its adoption, inventions and discoveries in Art and Science, within the last hundred

years, have succeeded each other with extraordinary rapidity. In 1814 there was only one steam vessel in

Scotland; while England possessed none at all. Now, the British mercantile steamships number about 5000,

In olden times this country possessed the materials for great things, as well as the men fitted to develope them

into great results. But the nation was slow to awake and take advantage of its opportunities. There was no

enterprise, no commerceno "go" in the people. The roads were frightfully bad; and there was little

If anything important had to be done, we used to send for foreigners to come and teach us how to do it. We

sent for them to drain our fens, to build our piers and harbours, and even to pump our water at London

Bridge. Though a seafaring population lived round our coasts, we did not fish our own seas, but left it to the

industrious Dutchmen to catch the fish, and supply our markets. It was not until the year 1787 that the

Yarmouth people began the deepsea herring fishery; and yet these were the most enterprising amongst the

English commerce also had very slender beginnings. At the commencement of the fifteenth century, England

was of very little account in the affairs of Europe. Indeed, the history of modern England is nearly coincident

with the accession of the Tudors to the throne. With the exception of Calais and Dunkirk, her dominions on

the Continent had been wrested from her by the French. The country at home had been made desolate by the

Wars of the Roses. The population was very small, and had been kept down by war, pestilence, and

famine.[3] The chief staple was wool, which was exported to Flanders in foreign ships, there to be

manufactured into cloth. Nearly every article of importance was brought from abroad; and the little

commerce which existed was in the hands of foreigners. The seas were swept by privateers, little better than

pirates, who plundered without scruple every vessel, whether friend or foe, which fell in their way.

The British navy has risen from very low beginnings. The English fleet had fallen from its high estate since

the reign of Edward III., who won a battle from the French and Flemings in 1340, with 260 ships; but his

vessels were all of moderate size, being boats, yachts, and caravels, of very small tonnage. According to the

contemporary chronicles, Weymouth, Fowey, Sandwich, and Bristol, were then of nearly almost as much

importance as London;[4] which latter city only furnished twentyfive vessels, with 662 mariners.

The Royal Fleet began in the reign of Henry VII. Only six or seven vessels then belonged to the King, the

largest being the Grace de Dieu, of comparatively small tonnage. The custom then was, to hire ships from the

Venetians, the Genoese, the Hanse towns, and other trading people; and as soon as the service for which the

When Henry VIII. ascended the throne in 1509, he directed his attention to the state of the navy. Although the

insular position of England was calculated to stimulate the art of shipbuilding more than in most continental

countries, our best ships long continued to be built by foreigners. Henry invited from abroad, especially from

Italy, where the art of shipbuilding had made the greatest progress, as many skilful artists and workmen as he

could procure, either by the hope of gain, or the high honours and distinguished countenance which he paid

them. "By incorporating," says Charnock, "these useful persons among his own subjects, he soon formed a

corps sufficient to rival those states which had rendered themselves most distinguished by their knowledge in

this art; so that the fame of Genoa and Venice, which had long excited the envy of the greater part of Europe,

In fitting out his fleet, we find Henry disbursing large sums to foreigners for shipbuilding, for "harness" or

armour, and for munitions of all sorts. The State Papers[6] particularize the amounts paid to Lewez de la Fava

for "harness;" to William Gurre, "bregandymaker;" and to Leonard Friscobald for "almayn ryvetts."

Francis de Errona, a Spaniard, supplied the gunpowder. Among the foreign mechanics and artizans employed

were Hans Popenruyter, gunfounder of Mechlin; Robert Sakfeld, Robert Skorer, Fortuno de Catalenago, and

John Cavelcant. On one occasion 2,797L. 19s. 4 1/2d. was disbursed for guns and grindstones. This sum must

be multiplied by about four, to give the proper present value. Popenruyter seems to have been the great

gunfounder of the age; he supplied the principal guns and gun stores for the English navy, and his name

occurs in every Ordnance account of the series, generally for sums of the largest amounts.

Henry VIII. was the first to establish Royal dockyards, first at Woolwich, then at Portsmouth, and thirdly at

Deptford, for the erection and repair of ships. Before then, England had been principally dependent upon

Dutchmen and Venetians, both for ships of war and merchantmen. The sovereign had neither naval arsenals

nor dockyards, nor any regular establishment of civil or naval affairs to provide ships of war. Sir Edward

Howard, Lord High Admiral of England, at the accession of Henry VIII., actually entered into a "contract"

This singular document is still preserved in the State Paper office. Even after the establishment of royal

dockyards, the sovereignas late as the reign of Elizabethentered into formal contracts with shipwrights

The King, having made his first effort at establishing a royal navy, sent the fleet to sea against the ships of

France. The Regent was the ship royal, with Sir Thomas Knivet, Master of the Horse, and Sir John Crew of

Devonshire, as Captains. The fleet amounted to twentyfive well furnished ships. The French fleet were

thirtynine in number. They met in Brittany Bay, and had a fierce fight. The Regent grappled with a great

carack of Brest; the French, on the English boarding their ship, set fire to the gunpowder, and both ships were

blown up, with all their men. The French fleet fled, and the English kept the seas. The King, hearing of the

loss of the Regent, caused a great ship to be built, the like of which had never before been seen in England,

This ship was constructed by foreign artizans, principally by Italians, and was launched in 1515. She was said

to be of a thousand tons portage the largest ship in England. The vessel was fourmasted, with two round

tops on each mast, except the shortest mizen. She had a high forecastle and poop, from which the crew could

shoot down upon the deck or waist of another vessel. The object was to have a sort of castle at each end of

the ship. This style of shipbuilding was doubtless borrowed from the Venetians, then the greatest naval power

in Europe. The length of the masts, the height of the ship above the water's edge, and the ornaments and

decorations, were better adapted for the stillness of the Adriatic and Mediterranean Seas, than for the

boisterous ocean of the northern parts of Europe.[7] The story long prevailed that "the Great Harry swept a

dozen flocks of sheep off the Isle of Man with her bobstay." An American gentleman (N.B. Anderson,

LL.D., Boston) informed the present author that this saying is still proverbial amongst the United States

The same features were reproduced in merchant ships. Most of them were suited for defence, to prevent the

attacks of pirates, which swarmed the seas round the coast at that time. Shipbuilding by the natives in private

shipyards was in a miserable condition. Mr. Willet, in his memoir relative to the navy, observes: "It is said,

and I believe with truth, that at this time (the middle of the sixteenth century) there was not a private builder

between London Bridge and Gravesend, who could lay down a ship in the mould left from a Navy Board's

Another ship of some note built at the instance of Henry VIII. was the Mary Rose, of the portage of 500 tons.

We find her in the "pond at Deptford" in 1515. Seven years later, in the thirtieth year of Henry VIII.'s reign,

she was sent to sea, with five other English ships of war, to protect such commerce as then existed from the

depredations of the French and Scotch pirates. The Mary Rose was sent many years later (in 1544) with the

English fleet to the coast of France, but returned with the rest of the fleet to Portsmouth without entering into

any engagement. While laid at anchor, not far from the place where the Royal George afterwards went down,

and the ship was under repair, her gunports being very low when she was laid over, "the shipp turned, the

What was to be done? There were no English engineers or workmen who could raise the ship. Accordingly,

Henry VIII. sent to Venice for assistance, and when the men arrived, Pietro de Andreas was dispatched with

the Venetian marines and carpenters to raise the Mary Rose. Sixty English mariners were appointed to attend

upon them. The Venetians were then the skilled "heads," the English were only the "hands." Nevertheless

they failed with all their efforts; and it was not until the year 1836 that Mr. Dean, the engineer, succeeded in

raising not only the Royal George, but the Mary Rose, and cleared the roadstead at Portsmouth of the remains

When Elizabeth ascended the throne in 1558, the commerce and navigation of England were still of very

small amount. The population of the kingdom amounted to only about five millionsnot much more than

the population of London is now. The country had little commerce, and what it had was still mostly in the

hands of foreigners. The Hanse towns had their large entrepot for merchandise in Cannon Street, on the site

of the present Cannon Street Station. The wool was still sent abroad to Flanders to be fashioned into cloth,

and even garden produce was principally imported from Holland. Dutch, Germans, Flemings, French, and

Venetians continued to be our principal workmen. Our iron was mostly obtained from Spain and Germany.

The best arms and armour came from France and Italy. Linen was imported from Flanders and Holland,

though the best came from Rheims. Even the coarsest dowlas, or sailcloth, was imported from the Low

The royal ships continued to be of very small burthen, and the mercantile ships were still smaller. The Queen,

however, did what she could to improve the number and burthen of our ships. "Foreigners," says Camden,

"stiled her the restorer of naval glory and Queen of the Northern Seas." In imitation of the Queen, opulent

subjects built ships of force; and in course of time England no longer depended upon Hamburg, Dantzic,

Spain was then the most potent power in Europe, and the Netherlands, which formed part of the dominions of

Spain, was the centre of commercial prosperity. Holland possessed above 800 good ships, of from 200 to 700

tons burthen, and above 600 busses for fishing, of from 100 to 200 tons. Amsterdam and Antwerp were in the

heyday of their prosperity. Sometimes 500 great ships were to be seen lying together before Amsterdam;[9]

whereas England at that time had not four merchant ships of 400 tons each! Antwerp, however, was the most

important city in the Low Countries. It was no uncommon thing to see as many as 2500 ships in the Scheldt,

laden with merchandize. Sometimes 500 ships would come and go from Antwerp in one day, bound to or

returning from the distant parts of the world. The place was immensely rich, and was frequented by

Spaniards, Germans, Danes, English, Italians, and Portuguese the Spaniards being the most numerous.

Camden, in his history of Queen Elizabeth, relates that our general trade with the Netherlands in 1564

amounted to twelve millions of ducats, five millions of which was for English cloth alone.

The religious persecutions of Philip II. of Spain and of Charles IX. of France shortly supplied England with

the population of which she stood in needactive, industrious, intelligent artizans. Philip set up the

Inquisition in Flanders, and in a few years more than 50,000 persons were deliberately murdered. The

Duchess of Parma, writing to Philip II. in 1567, informed him that in a few days above 100,000 men had

already left the country with their money and goods, and that more were following every day. They fled to

Germany, to Holland, and above all to England, which they hailed as Asylum Christi. The emigrants settled

in the decayed cities and towns of Canterbury, Norwich, Sandwich, Colchester, Maidstone, Southampton, and

many other places, where they carried on their manufactures of woollen, linen, and silk, and established many

Five years later, in 1572, the massacre of St. Bartholomew took place in France, during which the Roman

Catholic Bishop Perefixe alleges that 100,000 persons were put to death because of their religions opinions.

All this persecution, carried on so near the English shores, rapidly increased the number of foreign fugitives

into England, which was followed by the rapid advancement of the industrial arts in this country.

The asylum which Queen Elizabeth gave to the persecuted foreigners brought down upon her the hatred of

Philip II. and Charles IX. When they found that they could not prevent her furnishing them with an asylum,

they proceeded to compass her death. She was excommunicated by the Pope, and Vitelli was hired to

assassinate her. Philip also proceeded to prepare the Sacred Armada for the subjugation of the English nation,

Modern England was then in the throes of her birth. She had not yet reached the vigour of her youth, though

she was full of life and energy. She was about to become the England of free thought, commerce, and

manufactures; to plough the ocean with her navies, and to plant her colonies over the earth. Up to the

It was a period of sudden emancipation of thought, and of immense fertility and originality. The poets and

prose writers of the time united the freshness of youth with the vigour of manhood. Among these were

Spenser, Shakespeare, Sir Philip Sidney, the Fletchers, Marlowe, and Ben Jonson. Among the statesmen of

Elizabeth were Burleigh, Leicester, Walsingham, Howard, and Sir Nicholas Bacon. But perhaps greatest of

all were the sailors, who, as Clarendon said, "were a nation by themselves;" and their leadersDrake,

Frobisher, Cavendish, Hawkins, Howard, Raleigh, Davis, and many more distinguished seamen.

They were the representative men of their time, the creation in a great measure of the national spirit. They

were the offspring of long generations of seamen and lovers of the sea. They could not have been great but

for the nation which gave them birth, and imbued them with their worth and spirit. The great sailors, for

They simply took the lead in a country whose coasts were fringed with sailors. Their greatness was but the

The age of English maritime adventure only began in the reign of Elizabeth. England had then no

coloniesno foreign possessions whatever. The first of her extensive colonial possessions was established in

this reign. "Ships, colonies, and commerce "began to be the national mottonot that colonies make ships

and commerce, but that ships and commerce make colonies. Yet what cockleshells of ships our pioneer

Although John Cabot or Gabota, of Bristol, originally a citizen of Venice, had discovered the continent of

North America in 1496, in the reign of Henry VII., he made no settlement there, but returned to Bristol with

his four small ships. Columbus did not see the continent of America until two years later, in 1498, his first

It was not until the year 1553 that an attempt was made to discover a Northwest passage to Cathaya or

China. Sir Hugh Willonghby was put in command of the expedition, which consisted of three ships,the

Bona Esperanza, the Bona Ventura (Captain Chancellor), and the Bona Confidentia (Captain

Durforth),most probably ships built by Venetians. Sir Hugh reached 72 degrees of north latitude, and was

compelled by the buffeting of the winds to take refuge with Captain Durforth's vessel at Arcina Keca, in

Russian Lapland, where the two captains and the crews of these ships, seventy in number, were frozen to

death. In the following year some Russian fishermen found Sir John Willonghby sitting dead in his cabin,

Captain Chancellor was more fortunate. He reached Archangel in the White Sea, where no ship had ever been

seen before. He pointed out to the English the way to the whale fishery at Spitzbergen, and opened up a trade

with the northern parts of Russia. Two years later, in 1556, Stephen Burroughs sailed with one small ship,

which entered the Kara Sea; but he was compelled by frost and ice to return to England. The strait which he

It was not, however, until the reign of Elizabeth that great maritime adventures began to be made. Navigators

were not so venturous as they afterwards became. Without proper methods of navigation, they were apt to be

carried away to the south, across an ocean without limit. In 1565 a young captain, Martin Frobisher, came

into notice. At the age of twentyfive he captured in the South Seas the Flying Spirit, a Spanish ship laden

with a rich cargo of cochineal. Four years later, in 1569, he made his first attempt to discover the northwest

passage to the Indies, being assisted by Ambrose Dudley, Earl of Warwick. The ships of Frobisher were three

in number, the Gabriel, of from 15 to 20 tons; the Michael, of from 20 to 25 tons, or half the size of a modern

fishingboat; and a pinnace, of from 7 to 10 tons! The aggregate of the crews of the three ships was only

thirtyfive, men and boys. Think of the daring of these early navigators in attempting to pass by the North

Pole to Cathay through snow, and storm, and ice, in such miserable little cockboats! The pinnace was lost;

the Michael, under Owen Griffith, a Welshman, deserted; and Martin Frobisher in the Gabriel went alone

He entered the great bay, since called Hudson's Bay, by Frobisher's Strait. He returned to England without

making the discovery of the Passage, which long remained the problem of arctic voyagers. Yet ten years

later, in 1577, he made another voyage, and though he made his second attempt with one of Queen

Elizabeth's own ships, and two barks, with 140 persons in all, he was as unsuccessful as before. He brought

home some supposed gold ore; and on the strength of the stones containing gold, a third expedition went out

in the following year. After losing one of the ships, consuming the provisions, and suffering greatly from ice

and storms, the fleet returned home one by one. The supposed gold ore proved to be only glittering sand.

While Frobisher was seeking ElDorado in the North, Francis Drake was finding it in the South. He was a

"Pains, with patience in his youth," says Fuller, "knit the joints of his soul, and made them more solid and

compact." At an early age, when carrying on a coasting trade, his imagination was inflamed by the exploits of

his protector Hawkins in the New World, and he joined him in his last unfortunate adventure on the Spanish

Main. He was not, however, discouraged by his first misfortune, but having assembled about him a number of

seamen who believed in him, he made other adventures to the West Indies, and learnt the navigation of that

part of the ocean. In 1570, he obtained a regular commission from Queen Elizabeth, though he sailed his own

ships, and made his own ventures. Every Englishman, who had the means, was at liberty to fit out his own

ships; and with tolerable vouchers, he was able to procure a commission from the Court, and proceed to sea at

his own risk and cost. Thus, the naval enterprise and pioneering of new countries under Elizabeth, was almost

In 1572, the butchery of the Hugnenots took place at Paris and throughout France; while at the same time the

murderous power of Philip II. reigned supreme in the Netherlands. The sailors knew what they had to expect

from the Spanish king in the event of his obtaining his threatened revenge upon England; and under their

chosen chiefs they proceeded to make war upon him. In the year of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, Drake

set sail for the Spanish Main in the Pasha, of seventy tons, accompanied by the Swan, of twentyfive tons;

the united crews of the vessels amounting to seventythree men and boys. With this insignificant force,

Drake made great havoc amongst the Spanish shipping at Nombre de Dios. He partially crossed the Isthmus

of Darien, and obtained his first sight of the great Pacific Ocean. He returned to England in August 1573,

A few years later, in 1577, he made his evermemorable expedition. Charnock says it was "an attempt in its

nature so bold and unprecedented, that we should scarcely know whether to applaud it as a brave, or condemn

it as a rash one, but for its success." The squadron with which he sailed for South America consisted of five

vessels, the largest of which, the Pelican, was only of 100 tons burthen; the next, the Elizabeth, was of 80; the

third, the Swan, a flyboat, was of 50; the Marygold bark, of 30; and the Christopher, a pinnace, of 15 tons.

The gentlemen went with Drake "to learn the art of navigation." After various adventures along the South

American coast, the little fleet passed through the Straits of Magellan, and entered the Pacific Ocean. Drake

took an immense amount of booty from the Spanish towns along the coast, and captured the royal galleon, the

Cacafuego, laden with treasure. After trying in vain to discover a passage home by the Northeastern ocean,

though what is now known as Behring Straits, he took shelter in Port San Francisco, which he took

possession of in the name of the Queen of England, and called New Albion. He eventually crossed the Pacific

for the Moluccas and Java, from which he sailed right across the Indian Ocean, and by the Cape of Good

Hope to England, thus making the circumnavigation of the world. He was absent with his little fleet for about

Not less extraordinary was the voyage of Captain Cavendish, who made the circumnavigation of the globe at

his own expense. He set out from Plymouth in three small vessels on the 21st July, 1586. One vessel was of

120 tons, the second of 60 tons, and the third of 40 tonsnot much bigger than a Thames yacht. The united

crews, of officers, men, and boys, did not exceed 123! Cavendish sailed along the South American continent,

and made through the Straits of Magellan, reaching the Pacific Ocean. He burnt and plundered the Spanish

settlements along the coast, captured some Spanish ships, and took by boarding the galleon St. Anna, with

122,000 Spanish dollars on board. He then sailed across the Pacific to the Ladrone Islands, and returned

home through the Straits of Java and the Indian Archipelago by the Cape of Good Hope, and reached England

The sacred and invincible Armada was now ready, Philip II. was determined to put down those English

adventurers who had swept the coasts of Spain and plundered his galleons on the high seas. The English

sailors knew that the sword of Philip was forged in the gold mines of South America, and that the only way to

defend their country was to intercept the plunder on its voyage home to Spain. But the sailors and their

captainsDrake, Hawkins, Frobisher, Howard, Grenville, Raleigh, and the restcould not altogether

interrupt the enterprise of the King of Spain. The Armada sailed, and came in sight of the English coast on

The struggle was of an extraordinary character. On the one side was the most powerful naval armament that

had ever put to sea. It consisted of six squadrons of sixty fine large ships, the smallest being of 700 tons.

Besides these were four gigantic galleasses, each carrying fifty guns, four large armed galleys, fiftysix

armed merchant ships, and twenty caravelsin all, 149 vessels. On board were 8000 sailors, 20,000 soldiers,

and a large number of galleyslaves. The ships carried provisions enough for six months' consumption; and

On the other side was the small English fleet under Hawkins and Drake. The Royal ships were only thirteen

in number. The rest were contributed by private enterprize, there being only thirtyeight vessels of all sorts

and sizes, including cutters and pinnaces, carrying the Queen's flag. The principal armed merchant ships were

provided by London, Southampton, Bristol, and the other southern ports. Drake was followed by some

privateers; Hawkins had four or five ships, and Howard of Effingham two. The fleet was, however, very

badly found in provisions and ammunition. There was only a week's provisions on board, and scarcely

enough ammunition for one day's hard fighting. But the ships, small though they were, were in good

condition. They could sail, whether in pursuit or in flight, for the men who navigated them were thorough

The success of the defence was due to tact, courage, and seamanship. At the first contact of the fleets, the

Spanish towering galleons wished to close, to grapple with their contemptuous enemies, and crush them to

death. "Come on!" said Medina Sidonia. Lord Howard came on with the Ark and three other ships, and fired

with immense rapidity into the great floating castles. The Sam Mateo luffed, and wanted them to board. "No!

not yet!" The English tacked, returned, fired again, riddled the Spaniards, and shot away in the eye of the

wind. To the astonishment of the Spanish Admiral, the English ships approached him or left him just as they

chose. "The enemy pursue me," wrote the Spanish Admiral to the Prince of Parma; "they fire upon me most

days from morning till nightfall, but they will not close and grapple, though I have given them every

opportunity." The Capitana, a galleon of 1200 tons, dropped behind, struck her flag to Drake, and increased

the store of the English fleet by some tons of gunpowder. Another Spanish ship surrendered, and another

store of powder and shot was rescued for the destruction of the Armada. And so it happened throughout, until

the Spanish fleet was driven to wreck and ruin, and the remaining ships were scattered by the tempests of the

north. After all, Philip proved to be, what the sailors called him, only "a Colossus stuffed with clouts."

The English sailors followed up their advantage. They went on "singeing the Ring of Spain's beard." Private

adventurers fitted up a fleet under the command of Drake, and invaded the mainland of Spain. They took the

lower part of the town of Corunna; sailed to the Tagus, and captured a fleet of ships laden with wheat and

warlike stores for a new Armada. They next sacked Vigo, and returned to England with 150 pieces of cannon

and a rich booty. The Earl of Cumberland sailed to the West Indies on a private adventure, and captured more

Spanish prizes. In 1590, ten English merchantmen, returning from the Levant, attacked twelve Spanish

galleons, and after six hours' contest, put them to flight with great loss. In the following year, three merchant

ships set sail for the East Indies, and in the course of their voyage took several Portuguese vessels.

A powerful Spanish fleet still kept the seas, and in 1591 they conquered the noble Sir Richard Grenville at the

Azoresfifteen great Spanish galleons against one Queen's ship, the Revenge. In 1593, two of the Queen's

ships, accompanied by a number of merchant ships, sailed for the West Indies, under Burroughs, Frobisher,

and Cross, and amongst their other captures they took the greatest of all the East India caracks, a vessel of

1600 tons, 700 men, and 36 brass cannon, laden with a magnificent cargo. She was taken to Dartmouth, and

surprised all who saw her, being the largest ship that had ever been seen in England. In 1594, Captain James

Lancaster set sail with three ships upon a voyage of adventure. He was joined by some Dutch and French

privateers. The result was, that they captured thirtynine of the Spanish ships. Sir Amias Preston, Sir John

Hawkins, and Sir Francis Drake, also continued their action upon the seas. Lord Admiral Howard and the

Earl of Essex made their famous attack upon Cadiz for the purpose of destroying the new Armada; they

demolished all the forts; sank eleven of the King of Spain's best ships, fortyfour merchant ships, and

Nor was maritime discovery neglected. The planting of new colonies began, for the English people had

already begun to swarm. In 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert planted Newfoundland for the Queen. In 1584, Sir

Waiter Raleigh planted the first settlement in Virginia. Nor was the Northwest passage neglected; for in

1580, Captain Pett (a name famous on the Thames) set sail from Harwich in the George, accompanied by

Captain Jackman in the William. They reached the ice in the North Sea, but were compelled to return without

effecting their purpose! Will it be believed that the George was only of 40 tons, and that its crew consisted of

nine men and a boy; and that the William was of 20 tons, with five men and a boy? The wonder is that these

little vessels could resist the terrible icefields, and return to England again with their hardy crews.

Then in 1585, another of our adventurous sailors, John Davis, of Sandridge on the Dart, set sail with two

barks, the Sunshine and the Moonshine, of 50 and 35 tons respectively, and discovered in the far Northwest

the Strait which now bears his name. He was driven back by the ice; but, undeterred by his failure, he set out

on a second, and then on a third voyage of discovery in the two following years. But he never succeeded in

discovering the Northwest passage. It all reads like a mysterythese repeated, determined, and energetic

In these early times the Dutch were not unworthy rivals of the English. After they had succeeded in throwing

off the Spanish yoke and achieved their independence, they became one of the most formidable of maritime

powers. In the course of another century Holland possessed more colonies, and had a larger share of the

carrying trade of the world than Britain. It was natural therefore that the Dutch republic should take an

interest in the Northwest passage; and the Dutch sailors, by their enterprise and bravery, were among the

first to point the way to Arctic discovery. Barents and Behring, above all others, proved the courage and

The romance of the East India Company begins with an advertisement in the London Gazette of 1599,

towards the end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth. As with all other enterprises of the nation, it was established

by private means. The Company was started with a capital of 72,000L. in 50L. shares. The adventurers

bought four vessels of an average burthen of 350 tons. These were stocked with provisions, "Norwich stuffs,"

and other merchandise. The tiny fleet sailed from Billingsgate on the 13th February, 1601. It went by the

Cape of Good Hope to the East Indies, under the command of Captain James Lancaster. It took no less than

The little fleet reached Acheen in June, 1602. The king of the territory received the visitors with courtesy, and

exchanged spices with them freely. The four vessels sailed homeward, taking possession of the island of St.

Helena on their way back; having been absent exactly thirtyone months. The profits of the first voyage

proved to be about one hundred per cent. Such was the origin of the great East India Companynow

To return to the shipping and the mercantile marine of the time of Queen Elizabeth. The number of Royal

ships was only thirteen, the rest of the navy consisting of merchant ships, which were hired and discharged

when their purpose was served.[11] According to Wheeler, at the accession of the Queen, there were not

more than four ships belonging to the river Thames, excepting those of the Royal Navy, which were over 120

tons in burthen;[12] and after forty years, the whole of the merchant ships of England, over 100 tons,

amounted to 135; only a few of these being of 500 tons. In 1588, the number had increased to 150, "of about

150 tons one with another, employed in trading voyages to all parts and countries." The principal shipping

which frequented the English ports still continued to be foreignItalian, Flemish, and German.

Liverpool, now possessing the largest shipping tonnage in the world, had not yet come into existence. It was

little better than a fishing village. The people of the place presented a petition to the Queen, praying her to

remit a subsidy which had been imposed upon them, and speaking of their native place as "Her Majesty's

poor decayed town of Liverpool." In 1565, seven years after Queen Elizabeth began to reign, the number of

vessels belonging to Liverpool was only twelve. The largest was of forty tons burthen, with twelve men; and

James I., on his accession to the throne of England in 1603, called in all the ships of war, as well as the

numerous privateers which had been employed during the previous reign in waging war against the

commerce of Spain, and declared himself to be at peace with all the world. James was as peaceful as a

Quaker. He was not a fighting King; and, partly on this account, he was not popular. He encouraged

manufactures in wool, silk, and tapestry. He gave every encouragement to the mercantile and colonizing

adventurers to plant and improve the rising settlements of Virginia, New England, and Newfoundland. He

also promoted the trade to the East Indies. Attempts continued to be made, by Hudson, Poole, Button, Hall,

Baffin, and other courageous seamen, to discover the NorthWest passage, but always without effect.

The shores of England being still much infested by Algerine and other pirates,[14] King James found it

necessary to maintain the ships of war in order to protect navigation and commerce. He nearly doubled the

ships of the Royal Navy, and increased the number from thirteen to twentyfour. Their size, however,

continued small, both Royal and merchant ships. Sir William Monson says, that at the accession of James I.

there were not above four merchant ships in England of 400 tons burthen.[15] The East Indian merchants

were the first to increase the size. In 1609, encouraged by their Charter, they built the Trade's Increase, of

1100 tons burthen, the largest merchant ship that had ever been built in England. As it was necessary that, the

crew of the ship should be able to beat off the pirates, she was fully armed. The additional ships of war were

also of heavier burthen. In the same year, the Prince, of 1400 tons burthen, was launched; she carried

sixtyfour cannon, and was superior to any ship of the kind hitherto seen in England.

And now we arrive at the subject of this memoir. The Petts were the principal shipbuilders of the time. They

had long been known upon the Thames, and had held posts in the Royal Dockyards since the reign of Henry

VII. They were gallant sailors, too; one of them, as already mentioned, having made an adventurous voyage

to the Arctic Ocean in his little bark, the George, of only 40 tons burthen. Phineas Pett was the first of the

great shipbuilders. His father, Peter Pett, was one of the Queen's master shipwrights. Besides being a

shipbuilder, he was also a poet, being the author of a poetical piece entitled, "Time's Journey to seek his

daughter Truth,"[16] a very respectable performance. Indeed, poetry is by no means incompatible with

shipbuildingthe late Chief Constructor of the Navy being, perhaps, as proud of his poetry as of his ships.

Pett's poem was dedicated to the Lord High Admiral, Howard, Earl of Nottingham; and this may possibly

have been the reason of the singular interest which he afterwards took in Phineas Pett, the poet shipwright's

Phineas Pett was the second son of his father. He was born at Deptford, or "Deptford Strond," as the place

used to be called, on the 1st of November, 1570. At nine years old, he was sent to the freeschool at

Rochester, and remained there for four years. Not profiting much by his education there, his father removed

him to a private school at Greenwich, kept by a Mr. Adams. Here he made so much progress, that in three

years time he was ready for Cambridge. He was accordingly sent to that University at Shrovetide, l586, and

was entered at Emmanuel College, under charge of Mr. Charles Chadwick, the president. His father allowed

Phineas remained at Cambridge for three years. He was obliged to quit the University by the death of his

"reverend, everloving father," whose loss, he says, "proved afterwards my utter undoing almost, had not

God been more merciful to me." His mother married again, "a most wicked husband," says Pett in his

autobiography,[17] "one, Mr. Thomas Nunn, a minister," but of what denomination he does not state. His

mother's imprudence wholly deprived him of his maintenance, and having no hopes of preferment from his

friends, he necessarily abandoned his University career, "presently after Christmas, 1590."

Early in the following year, he was persuaded by his mother to apprentice himself to Mr. Richard Chapman,

of Deptford Strond, one of the Queen's Master shipwrights, whom his late father had "bred up from a child to

that profession." He was allowed 2L. 6s. 8d. per annum, with which he had to provide himself with tools and

apparel. Pett spent two years in this man's service to very little purpose; Chapman then died, and the

apprentice was dismissed. Pett applied to his elder brother Joseph, who would not help him, although he had

succeeded to his father's post in the Royal Dockyard. He was accordingly "constrained to ship himself to sea

upon a desperate voyage in a manofwar." He accepted the humble place of carpenter's mate on board the

galleon Constance, of London. Pett's younger brother, Peter, then living at Wapping, gave him lodging, meat,

and drink, until the ship was ready to sail. But he had no money to buy clothes. Fortunately one William

King, a yoeman in Essex, taking pity upon the unfortunate young man, lent him 3L. for that purpose; which

The Constance was of only 200 tons burden. She set sail for the South a few days before Christmas, 1592.

There is no doubt that she was bound upon a piratical adventure. Piracy was not thought dishonourable in

those days. Four years had elapsed since the Armada had approached the English coast; and now the English

Whoever had the means of furnishing a ship, and could find a plucky captain to command her, sent her out as

a privateer. Even the Companies of the City of London clubbed their means together for the purpose of

sending out Sir Waiter Raleigh to capture Spanish ships, and afterwards to divide the plunder; as any one may

The adventure in which Pett was concerned did not prove very fortunate. He was absent for about twenty

months on the coasts of Spain and Barbary, and in the Levant, enduring much misery for want of victuals and

apparel, and "without taking any purchase of any value." The Constance returned to the Irish coast, "extreme

poorly." The vessel entered Cork harbour, and then Pett, thoroughly disgusted with privateering life, took

leave of both ship and voyage. With much difficulty, he made his way across the country to Waterford, from

whence he took ship for London. He arrived there three days before Christmas, 1594, in a beggarly condition,

and made his way to his brother Peter's house at Wapping, who again kindly entertained him. The elder

brother Joseph received him more coldly, though he lent him forty shillings to find himself in clothes. At that

time, the fleet was ordered to be got ready for the last expedition of Drake and Hawkins to the West Indies.

The Defiance was sent into Woolwich dock to be sheathed; and as Joseph Pett was in charge of the job, he

In the following year, Phineas succeeded in attracting the notice of Matthew Baker, who was commissioned

to rebuild Her Majesty's Triumph. Baker employed Pett as an ordinary workman; but he had scarcely begun

the job before Baker was ordered to proceed with the building of a great new ship at Deptford, called the

Phineas wished to follow the progress of the Triumph, but finding his brother Joseph unwilling to retain him

in his employment, he followed Baker to Deptford, and continued to work at the Repulse until she was

finished, launched, and set sail on her voyage, at the end of April, 1596. This was the leading ship of the

squadron which set sail for Cadiz, under the command of the Earl of Essex and the Lord Admiral Howard,

During the winter months, while the work was in progress, Pett spent the leisure of his evenings in perfecting

himself in learning, especially in drawing, cyphering, and mathematics, for the purpose, as he says, of

attaining the knowledge of his profession. His master, Mr. Baker, gave him every encouragement, and from

his assistance, he adds, "I must acknowledge I received my greatest lights." The Lord Admiral was often

present at Baker's house. Pett was importuned to set sail with the ship when finished, but he preferred

remaining at home. The principal reason, no doubt, that restrained him at this moment from seeking the

patronage of the great, was the care of his two sisters,[19] who, having fled from the house of their barbarous

stepfather, could find no refuge but in that of their brother Phineas. Joseph refused to receive them, and Peter

In April, 1597, Pett had the advantage of being introduced to Howard, Earl of Nottingham, then Lord High

Admiral of England. This, he says, was the first beginning of his rising. Two years later, Howard

recommended him for employment in purveying plank and timber in Norfolk and Suffolk for shipbuilding

purposes. Pett accomplished his business satisfactorily, though he had some malicious enemies to contend

against. In his leisure, he began to prepare models of ships, which he rigged and finished complete. He also

proceeded with the study of mathematics. The beginning of the year 1600 found Pett once more out of

employment; and during his enforced idleness, which continued for six months, he seriously contemplated

abandoning his profession and attempting to gain "an honest and convenient maintenance" by joining a friend

He was, however, prevented from undertaking this enterprise by a message which he received from the Court,

then stationed at Greenwich. The Lord High Admiral desired to see him; and after many civil compliments,

he offered him the post of keeper of the plankyard at Chatham. Pett was only too glad to accept this offer,

though the salary was small. He shipped his furniture on board a hoy of Rainham, and accompanied it down

the Thames to the junction with the Medway. There he escaped a great dangerone of the sea perils of the

time. The mouths of navigable rivers were still infested with pirates; and as the hoy containing Pett

approached the Nore about three o'clock in the morning, and while still dark, she came upon a Dunkirk

picaroon, full of men. Fortunately the pirate was at anchor; she weighed and gave chase, and had not the hoy

set full sail, and been impelled up the Swale by a fresh wind, Pett would have been taken prisoner, with all

Arrived at Chatham, Pett met his brother Joseph, became reconciled to him, and ever after they lived together

as loving brethren. At his brother's suggestion, Pett took a lease of the Manor House, and settled there with

his sisters. He was now in the direct way to preferment. Early in the following year (March, 1601) he

succeeded to the place of assistant to the principal master shipwright at Chatham, and undertook the repairs

of Her Majesty's ship The Lion's Whelp, and in the next year he newbuilt the Moon enlarging her both in

At the accession of James I. in 1603, Pett was commanded by the Lord High Admiral with all possible speed

to build a little vessel for the young Prince Henry, eldest son of His Majesty. It was to be a sort of copy of the

Ark Royal, which was the flagship of the Lord High Admiral when he defeated the Spanish Armada. Pett

proceeded to accomplish the order with all dispatch. The little ship was in length by the keel 28 feet, in

breadth 12 feet, and very curiously garnished within and without with painting and carving. After working by

torch and candle light, night and day, the ship was launched, and set sail for the Thames, with the noise of

drums, trumpets, and cannon, at the beginning of March, 1604. After passing through a great storm at the

Nore, the vessel reached the Tower, where the King and the young Prince inspected her with delight. She was

christened Disdain by the Lord High Admiral, and Pett was appointed captain of the ship.

After his return to Chatham, Pett, at his own charge, built a small ship at Gillingham, of 300 tons, which he

launched in the same year, and named the Resistance. The ship was scarcely out of hand, when Pett was

ordered to Woolwich, to prepare the Bear and other vessels for conveying his patron, the Lord High Admiral,

as an Ambassador Extraordinary to Spain, for the purpose of concluding peace, after a strife of more than

forty years. The Resistance was hired by the Government as a transport, and Pett was put in command. He

seems to have been married at this time, as he mentions in his memoir that he parted with his wife and

children at Chatham on the 24th of March, 1605, and that he sailed from Queenborough on Easter Sunday.

During the voyage to Lisbon the Resistance became separated from the Ambassador's squadron, and took

refuge in Corunna. She then set sail for Lisbon, which she reached on the 24th of April; and afterwards for St.

Lucar, on the Guadalquiver, near Seville, which she reached on the 11th of May following. After revisiting

Corunna, "according to instructions," on the homeward voyage, Pett directed his course for England, and

reached Rye on the 26th of June, "amidst much rain, thunder, and lightning." In the course of the same year,

his brother Joseph died, and Phineas succeeded to his post as master shipbuilder at Chatham. He was

permitted, in conjunction with one Henry Farvey and three others, to receive the usual reward of 5s. per ton

for building five new merchant ships,[21] most probably for East Indian commerce, now assuming large

dimensions. He was despatched by the Government to Bearwood, in Hampshire, to make a selection of

timber from the estate of the Earl of Worcester for the use of the navy, and on presenting his report 3000 tons

were purchased. What with his building of ships, his attendance on the Lord Admiral to Spain, and his

selection of timber for the Government, his hands seem to have been kept very full during the whole of 1605.

In July, 1606, Pett received private instructions from the Lord High Admiral to have all the King's ships "put

into comely readiness" for the reception of the King of Denmark, who was expected on a Royal visit.

"Wherein," he says, "I strove extraordinarily to express my service for the honour of the kingdom; but by

reason the time limited was short, and the business great, we laboured night and day to effect it, which

accordingly was done, to the great honour of our sovereign king and master, and no less admiration of all

strangers that were eyewitnesses to the same." The reception took place on the 10th of August, 1606.

Shortly after the departure of His Majesty of Denmark, four of the Royal shipsthe Ark, Victory, Golden

Lion, and Swiftsurewere ordered to be drydocked; the two last mentioned at Deptford, under charge of

Matthew Baker; and the two former at Woolwich, under that of Pett. For greater convenience, Pett removed

his family to Woolwich. After being elected and sworn Master of the Company of Shipwrights, he refers in

his manuscript, for the first time, to his magnificent and original design of the Prince Royal.[22]

"After settling at Woolwich," he says, "I began a curious model for the prince my master, most part whereof I

wrought with my own hands." After finishing the model, he exhibited it to the Lord High Admiral, and, after

receiving his approval and commands, he presented it to the young prince at Richmond. "His Majesty (who

was present) was exceedingly delighted with the sight of the model, and passed some time in questioning the

divers material things concerning it, and demanded whether I could build the great ship in all parts like the

same; for I will, says His Majesty, compare them together when she shall be finished. Then the Lord Admiral

commanded me to tell His Majesty the story of the Three Ravens[23] I had seen at Lisbon, in St. Vincent's

Church; which I did as well as I could, with my best expressions, though somewhat daunted at first at His

Before, however, he could accomplish his purpose, Pett was overtaken by misfortunes. His enemies, very

likely seeing with spite the favour with which he had been received by men in high position, stirred up an

agitation against him. There may, and there very probably was, a great deal of jobbery going on in the

dockyards. It was difficult, under the system which prevailed, to have any proper check upon the expenditure

for the repair and construction of ships. At all events, a commission was appointed for the purpose of

inquiring into the abuses and misdemeanors of those in office; and Pett's enemies took care that his past

proceedings should be thoroughly overhauled,together with those of Sir Robert Mansell, then Treasurer to

the Navy; Sir John Trevor, surveyor; Sir Henry Palmer, controller; Sir Thomas Bluther, victualler; and many

While the commission was still sitting and holding what Pett calls their "malicious proceedings," he was able

to lay the keel of his new great ship upon the stocks in the dock at Woolwich on the 20th of October, 1608.

He had a clear conscience, for his hands were clean. He went on vigorously with his work, though he knew

that the inquisition against him was at its full height. His enemies reported that he was "no artist, and that he

was altogether insufficient to perform such a service" as that of building his great ship. Nevertheless, he

persevered, believing in the goodness of his cause. Eventually, he was enabled to turn the tables upon his

accusers, and to completely justify himself in all his transactions with the king, the Lord Admiral, and the

public officers, who were privy to all his transactions. Indeed, the result of the enquiry was not only to cause

a great trouble and expense to all the persons accused, but, as Pett says in his Memoir, "the Government itself

of that royal office was so shaken and disjoined as brought almost ruin upon the whole Navy, and a far

greater charge to his Majesty in his yearly expense than ever was known before."[24]

In the midst of his troubles and anxieties, Pett was unexpectedly cheered with the presence of his "Master"

Prince Henry, who specially travelled out of his way from Essex to visit him at Woolwich, to see with his

own eyes what progress he was making with the great ship. After viewing the dry dock, which had been

constructed by Pett, and was one of the first, if not the very first in England,his Highness partook of a

banquet which the shipbuilder had hastily prepared for him in his temporary lodgings.

One of the circumstances which troubled Pett so much at this time, was the strenuous opposition of the other

shipbuilders to his plans of the great ship. There never had been such a frightful innovation. The model was

all wrong. The lines were detestable. The man who planned the whole thing was a fool, a "cozener" of the

king, and the ship, suppose it to be made, was "unfit for any other use but a dungboat!" This attack upon his

He determined to put his case in a staightforward manner before the Lord High Admiral. He set down in

writing in the briefest manner everything that he had done, and the plots that had been hatched against him;

and beseeched his lordship, for the honour of the State, and the reputation of his office, to cause the entire

matter to be thoroughly investigated "by judicious and impartial persons." After a conference with Pett, and

an interview with his Majesty, the Lord High Admiral was authorised by the latter to invite the Earls of

Worcester and Suffolk to attend with him at Woolwich, and bring all the accusers of Pett's design of the great

ship before them for the purpose of examination, and to report to him as to the actual state of affairs.

Meanwhile Pett's enemies had been equally busy. They obtained a private warrant from the Earl of

Northampton[25] to survey the work; "which being done," says Pett, "upon return of the insufficiency of the

same under their hands, and confirmation by oath, it was resolved amongst them I should be turned out, and

But the lords appointed by the King now interfered between Pett and his adversaries. They first inspected the

ship, and made a diligent survey of the form and manner of the work and the goodness of the materials, and

then called all the accusers before them to hear their allegations. They were examined separately. First, Baker

the master shipbuilder was called. He objected to the size of the ship, to the length, breadth, depth, draught of

water, height of jack, rake before and aft, breadth of the floor, scantling of the timber, and so on. Then

another of the objectors was called; and his evidence was so clearly in contradiction to that which had already

been given, that either one or both must be wrong. The principal objector, Captain Waymouth, next gave his

evidence; but he was able to say nothing to any purpose, except giving their lordships "a long, tedious

discourse of proportions, measures, lines, and an infinite rabble of idle and unprofitable speeches, clean from

The result was that their lordships reported favourably of the design of the ship, and the progress which had

The Earl of Nottingham interposed his influence; and the King himself, accompanied by the young Prince,

went down to Woolwich, and made a personal examination.[26] A great many witnesses were again

examined, twentyfour on one side, and twentyseven on the other. The King then carefully examined the

ship himself: "the planks, the treenails, the workmanship, and the crossgrained timber." "The crossgrain,"

he concluded, "was in the men and not in the timber." After all the measurements had been made and found

correct, "his Majesty," says Pett, "with a loud voice commanded the measurers to declare publicly the very

truth; which when they had delivered clearly on our side, all the whole multitude heaved up their hats, and

gave a great and loud shout and acclamation. And then the Prince, his Highness, called with a high voice in

these words: 'Where be now these perjured fellows that dare thus abuse his Majesty with these false

Thus Pett triumphed over all his enemies, and was allowed to finish the great ship in his own way. By the

middle of September 1610, the vessel was ready to be "strucken down upon her ways"; and a dozen of the

choice master carpenters of his Majesty's navy came from Chatham to assist in launching her. The ship was

decorated, gilded, draped, and garlanded; and on the 24th the King, the Queen, and the Royal family came

from the palace at Theobald's to witness the great sight. Unfortunately, the day proved very rough; and it was

little better than a neap tide. The ship started very well, but the wind "overblew the tide"; she caught in the

dockgates, and settled hard upon the ground, so that there was no possibility of launching her that day.

This was a great disappointment. The King retired to the palace at Greenwich, though the Prince lingered

behind. When he left, he promised to return by midnight, after which it was proposed to make another effort

to set the ship afloat. When the time arrived, the Prince again made his appearance, and joined the Lord High

Admiral, and the principal naval officials. It was bright moonshine. After midnight the rain began to fall, and

the wind to blow from the southwest. But about two o'clock, an hour before high water, the word was given

to set all taut, and the ship went away without any straining of screws and tackles, till she came clear afloat

into the midst of the Thames. The Prince was aboard, and amidst the blast of trumpets and expressions of joy,

he performed the ceremony of drinking from the great standing cup, and throwing the rest of the wine

towards the halfdeck, and christening the ship by the name of the Prince Royal.[27]

The dimensions of the ship may be briefly described. Her keel was 114 feet long, and her crossbeam 44 feet.

She was of 1400 tons burthen, and carried 64 pieces of great ordnance. She was the largest ship that had yet

The Prince Royal was, at the time she was built, considered one of the most wonderful efforts of human

genius. Mr. Charnock, in his 'Treatise on Marine Architecture,' speaks of her as abounding in striking

peculiarities. Previous to the construction of this ship, vessels were built in the style of the Venetian galley,

which although well adapted for the quiet Mediterranean, were not suited for the stormy northern ocean. The

fighting ships also of the time of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth were too full of "tophamper" for modern

navigation. They were oppressed by high forecastles and poops. Pett struck out entirely new ideas in the build

and lines of his new ship; and the course which he adopted had its effect upon all future marine structures.

The ship was more handy, more wieldy, and more convenient. She was unquestionably the first effort of

English ingenuity in the direction of manageableness and simplicity. "The vessel in question," says Charnock,

"may be considered the parent of the class of shipping which continues in practice even to the present

It is scarcely necessary to pursue in detail the further history of Phineas Pett. We may briefly mention the

principal points. In 1612, the Prince Royal was appointed to convey the Princess Elizabeth and her husband,

The Palsgrave, to the Continent. Pett was on board the ship, and found that "it wrought exceedingly well, and

was so yare of conduct that a foot of helm would steer her." While at Flushing, "such a multitude of people,

men, women, and children, came from all places in Holland to see the ship, that we could scarce have room

About the 27th of March, 1616, Pett bargained with Sir Waiter Raleigh to build a vessel of 500 tons,[28] and

received 500L. from him on account. The King, through the interposition of the Lord Admiral, allowed Pett

to lay her keel on the galley dock at Woolwich. In the same year he was commissioned by the Lord Zouche,

now Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, to construct a pinnace of 40 tons, in respect of which Pett remarks,

"towards the whole of the hull of the pinnace, and all her rigging, I received only 100L. from the Lord

Zouche, the rest Sir Henry Mainwaring (halfbrother to Raleigh) cunningly received on my behalf, without

my knowledge, which I never got from him but by piecemeal, so that by the bargain I was loser 100L. at

Pett fared much worse at the hands of Raleigh himself. His great ship, the Destiny, was finished and launched

in December, 1616. "I delivered her to him," says Pett, "on float, in good order and fashion; by which

business I lost 700L., and could never get any recompense at all for it; Sir Walter going to sea and leaving me

unsatisfied."[29] Nor was this the only loss that Pett met with this year. The King, he states, "bestowed upon

me for the supply of my present relief the making of a knightbaronet," which authority Pett passed to a

recusant, one Francis Ratcliffe, for 700L.; but that worthy defrauded him, so that he lost 30L. by the bargain.

Next year, Pett was despatched by the Government to the New Forest in Hampshire, "where," he says, "one

Sir Giles Mompesson[30] had made a vast waste in the spoil of his Majesty's timber, to redress which I was

employed thither, to make choice out of the number of trees he had felled of all such timber as was useful for

shipping, in which business I spent a great deal of time, and brought myself into a great deal of trouble."

About this period, poor Pett's wife and two of his children lay for some time at death's door. Then more

enquiries took place into the abuses of the dockyards, in which it was sought to implicate Pett. During the

next three years (161820) he worked under the immediate orders of the Commissioners in the New Dock at

In 1620, Pett's friend Sir Robert Mansell was appointed General of the Fleet destined to chastise the Algerine

pirates, who still continued their depredations on the shipping in the Channel, and the King thereupon

commissioned Pett to build with all dispatch two pinnaces, of 120 and 80 tons respectively. "I was myself,"

he says, "to serve as Captain in the voyage"being glad, no doubt, to escape from his tormentors. The two

pinnaces were built at Ratcliffe, and were launched on the 16th and l8th of October, 1620. On the 30th, Pett

sailed with the fleet, and after driving the pirates out of the Channel, he returned to port after an absence of

His enemies had taken advantage of his absence from England to get an order for the survey of the Prince

Royal, his masterpiece; the result of which was, he says, that "they maliciously certified the ship to be

unserviceable, and not fit to continuethat what charges should be bestowed upon her would be lost."

Nevertheless, the Prince Royal was docked, and fitted for a voyage to Spain. She was sent thither with

Charles Prince of Wales and the Duke of Buckingham, the former going in search of a Spanish wife. Pett, the

The expedition sailed on the 24th of August, 1623, and returned on the l4th of October. Pett was entertained

on board the Prince Royal, and rendered occasional services to the officers in command, though nothing of

The Prince of Wales presented him with a valuable gold chain as a reward for his attendance. In 1625, Pett,

after rendering many important services to the Admiralty, was ordered again to prepare the Prince Royal for

sea. She was to bring over the Prince of Wales's bride from France. While the preparations were making for

the voyage, news reached Chatham of the death of King James. Pett was afterwards commanded to go

forward with the work of preparing the Prince Royal, as well as the whole fleet, which was intended to escort

the French Princess, or rather the Queen, to England. The expedition took place in May, and the young Queen

Pett continued to be employed in building and repairing ships, as well as in preparing new designs, which he

submitted to the King and the Commissioners of the Navy. In 1626, he was appointed a joint commissioner,

with the Lord High Admiral, the Lord Treasurer Marlborough, and others, "to enquire into certain alleged

abuses of the Navy, and to view the state thereof, and also the stores thereof," clearly showing that he was

regaining his old position. He was also engaged in determining the best mode of measuring the tonnage of

ships.[31] Four years later he was again appointed a commissioner for making "a general survey of the whole

navy at Chatham." For this and his other services the King promoted Pett to be a principal officer of the

Navy, with a fee of 200L. per annum. His patent was sealed on the 16th of January, 1631. In the same year

the King visited Woolwich to witness the launching of the Vanguard, which Pett had built; and his Majesty

From this period to the year 1637, Pett records nothing of particular importance in his autobiography. He was

chiefly occupied in aiding his son Peterwho was rapidly increasing his fame as a shipwrightin repairing

and building firstclass ships of war. As Pett had, on an early occasion in his life, prepared a miniature ship

for Prince Henry, eldest son of James I., he now proceeded to prepare a similar model for the Prince of

Wales, the King's eldest son, afterwards Charles II. This model was presented to the Prince at St. James's,

"who entertained it with great joy, being purposely made to disport himself withal." On the next visit of his

Majesty to Woolwich, he inspected the progress made with the Leopard, a sloopofwar built by Peter Pett.

While in the hold of the vessel, the King called Phineas to one side, and told him of his resolution to have a

great new ship built, and that Phineas must be the builder. This great new ship was The Sovereign of the

Seas, afterwards built by Phineas and Peter Pett. Some say that the model was prepared by the latter; but

Phineas says that it was prepared by himself, and finished by the 29th of October, 1634. As a compensation

for his services, his Majesty renewed his pension of 40L. (which had been previously stopped), with orders

To provide the necessary timber for the new ship, Phineas and his son went down into the North to survey the

forests. They went first by water to Whitby; from thence they proceeded on horseback to Gisborough and

baited; then to Stockton, where they found but poor entertainment, though they lodged with the Mayor,

whose house "was only a mean thatched cottage!" Middlesborough and the great iron district of the North had

Newcastle, already of some importance, was the principal scene of their labours. The timber for the new ship

was found in Chapley Wood and Bracepeth Park. The gentry did all they could to facilitate the object of Pett.

On his journey homewards (July, 1635), he took Cambridge on his way, where, says he, "I lodged at the

The Sovereign of the Seas was launched on the l2th of October, 1637, having been about two years in

building. Evelyn in his diary says of the ship (l9th July, 1641): "We rode to Rochester and Chatham to see

the Soveraigne, a monstrous vessel so called, being for burthen, defence, and ornament, the richest that ever

spread cloth before the wind. She carried 100 brass cannon, and was 1600 tons, a rare sailer, the work of the

famous Phineas Pett." RearAdmiral Sir William Symonds says that she was afterwards cut down, and was a

The Sovereign continued for nearly sixty years to be the finest ship in the English service. Though frequently

engaged in the most injurious occupations, she continued fit for any services which the exigencies of the

State might require. She fought all through the wars of the Commonwealth; she was the leading ship of

Admiral Blake, and was in all the great naval engagements with France and Holland. The Dutch gave her the

name of The Golden Devil. In the last fight between the English and French, she encountered the Wonder of

the World, and so warmly plied the French Admiral, that she forced him out of his threedecked wooden

castle, and chasing the Royal Sun, before her, forced her to fly for shelter among the rocks, where she became

a prey to lesser vessels, and was reduced to ashes. At last, in the reign of William III., the Sovereign became

leaky and defective with age; she was laid up at Chatham, and being set on fire by negligence or accident, she

To return to the history of Phineas Pett. As years approached, he retired from office, and "his loving son," as

he always affectionately designates Peter, succeeded him as principal shipwright, Charles I. conferring upon

him the honour of knighthood. Phineas lived for ten years after the Sovereign of the Seas was launched. In

the burial register of the parish of Chatham it is recorded, "Phineas Pett, Esqe. and Capt., was buried 21st

Sir Peter Pett was almost as distinguished as his father. He was the builder of the first frigate, The Constant

Warwick. Sir William Symonds says of this vessel: "She was an incomparable sailer, remarkable for her

sharpness and the fineness of her lines; and many were built like her." Pett "introduced convex lines on the

immersed part of the hull, with the studding and sprit sails; and, in short, he appears to have fully deserved

his character of being the best ship architect of his time."[34] Sir Peter Pett's monument in Deptford Old

The Petts are said to have been connected with shipbuilding in the Thames for not less than 200 years. Fuller,

in his 'Worthies of England,' says of them"I am credibly informed that that mystery of shipwrights for

some descents hath been preserved faithfully in families, of whom the Petts about Chatham are of singular

regard. Good success have they with their skill, and carefully keep so precious a pearl, lest otherwise amongst

The late Peter Bolt, member for Greenwich, took pride in being descended from the Petts; but so far as we

know, the name itself has died out. In 1801, when Charnock's 'History of Marine Architecture' was published,

[1] This was not the first voyage of a steamer between England and America. The Savannah made the

passage from New York to Liverpool as early as 1819; but steam was only used occasionally during the

voyage, In 1825, the Enterprise, with engines by Maudslay, made the voyage from Falmouth to Calcutta in

113 days; and in 1828, the Curacoa made the voyage between Holland and the Dutch West Indies. But in all

these cases, steam was used as an auxiliary, and not as the one essential means of propulsion, as in the case of

[2] "In 1862 the steam tonnage of the country was 537,000 tons; in 1872, it was 1,537,000 tons; and in 1882,

it had reached 3,835,000 tons."Mr. Chamberlain's speech, House of Commons, 19th May, 1884.

[6] State Papers. Henry VIII. Nos. 3496, 3616, 4633. The principal kinds of ordnance at that time were

these:The "Apostles," so called from the head of an Apostle which they bore; "Curtows," or "Courtaulx";

"Culverins" and "Serpents"; "Minions," and "Potguns"; "Nurembergers," and "Bombards" or mortars.

[7] The sum of all costs of the Harry Grace de Dieu and three small galleys, was 7708L. 5s. 3d. (S.P.O. No.

[10] The Huguenots: their Settlements, Churches, and Industries, in England and Ireland, ch. iv.

[13] Picton's Selections from the Municipal Archives and Records of Liverpool, p. 90. About a hundred years

later, in 1757, the gross customs receipts of Liverpool had increased to 198,946L.; whilst those of Bristol

were as much as 351,211L. In 1883, the amount of tonnage of Liverpool, inwards and outwards, was

[14] There were not only Algerine but English pirates scouring the seas. Keutzner, the German, who wrote in

Elizabeth's reign, said, "The English are good sailors and famous pirates (sunt boni nautae et insignis

pyratae)." Roberts, in his Social History of the Southern Counties (p. 93), observes, "Elizabeth had employed

many English as privateers against the Spaniard. After the war, many were loth to lead an inactive life. They

had their commissions revoked, and were proclaimed pirates. The public looked upon them as gallant

fellows; the merchants gave them underhand support; and even the authorities in maritime towns connived at

the sale of their plunder. In spite of proclamations, during the first five years after the accession of James I.,

there were continual complaints. This lawless way of life even became popular. Many Englishmen furnished

themselves with good ships and scoured the seas, but little careful whom they might plunder." It was found

very difficult to put down piracy. According to Oliver's History of the city of Exeter, not less than "fifteen

sail of Turks" held the English Channel, snapping up merchantmen, in the middle of the seventeenth century!

The harbours in the southwest were infested by Moslem pirates, who attacked and plundered the ships, and

carried their crews into captivity. The loss, even to an inland port like Exeter, in ships, money, and men, was

[17] There are three copies extant of the autobiography, all of which are in the British Museum. In the main,

they differ but slightly from each other. Not one of them has been published in extenso. In December, 1795,

and in February, 1796, Dr. Samuel Denne communicated to the Society of Antiquaries particulars of two of

these MSS., and subsequently published copious extracts from them in their transactions (Archae. xii. anno

1796), in a very irregular and careless manner. It is probable that Dr. Denne never saw the original

manuscript, but only a garbled copy of it. The above narrative has been taken from the original, and collated

[18] See, for instance, the Index to the Journals of Records of the Corporation of the City of London (No. 2,

p. 346, 15901694) under the head of "Sir Walter Raleigh." There is a document dated the 15th November,

1593, in the 35th of Elizabeth, which runs as follows: "Committee appointed on behalf of such of the City

Companies as have ventured in the late Fleet set forward by Sir Walter Raleigh, Knight, and others, to join

with such honourable personages as the Queen hath appointed, to take a perfect view of all such goods,

prizes, spices, jewels, pearls, treasures, lately taken in the Carrack, and to make sale and division (Jor. 23, p.

156). Suit to be made to the Queen and Privy Council for the buying of the goods, lately taken at sea in the

Carrack; a committee appointed to take order accordingly; the benefit or loss arising thereon to be divided

and borne between the Chamber [of the Corporation of the City] and the Companies that adventured (157).

The several Companies that adventured at sea with Sir Waiter Raleigh to accept so much of the goods taken

in the Carrack to the value of 12,000L. according to the Queen's offer. A committee appointed to acquaint the

Lords of the Council with the City's acceptance thereof (167). Committee for sale of the Carrack goods

appointed (174). Bonds for sale to be sealed (196).... Committee to audit accounts of a former adventure (224

[19] There were three sisters in all, the eldest of whom (Abigail) fell a victim to the cruelty of Nunn, who

struck her across the head with the firetongs, from the effects of which she died in three days. Nunn was

tried and convicted of manslaughter. He died shortly after. Mrs. Nunn, Phineas's mother, was already dead.

[20] It would seem, from a paper hereafter to be more particularly referred to, that the government

encouraged the owners of ships and others to clear the seas of these pirates, agreeing to pay them for their

labours. In 1622, Pett fitted out an expedition against these pests of navigation, but experienced some

[22] An engraving of this remarkable ship is given in Charnock's History of Marine Architecture, ii. p. 199.

[23] The story of the Three, or rather Two Ravens, is as follows: The body of St. Vincent was originally

deposited at the Cape, which still bears his name, on the Portuguese coast; and his tomb, says the legend, was

zealously guarded by a couple of ravens. When it was determined, in the 12th century, to transport the relics

of the Saint to the Cathedral of Lisbon, the two ravens accompanied the ship which contained them, one at its

stem and the other at its stern. The relics were deposited in the Chapel of St. Vincent, within the Cathedral,

and there the two ravens have ever since remained. The monks continued to support two such birds in the

cloisters, and till very lately the officials gravely informed the visitor to the Cathedral that they were the

identical ravens which accompanied the Saint's relics to their city. The birds figure in the arms of Lisbon.

[24] The evidence taken by the Commissioners is embodied in a voluminous report. State Paper Office, Dom.

[25] The Earl of Northampton, Privy Seal, was Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports; hence his moving in the

matter. Pett says he was his "most implacable enemy." It is probable that the earl was jealous of Pett, because

he had received his commission to build the great ship directly from the sovereign, without the intervention

[26] This Royal investigation took place at Woolwich on the 8th May, 1609. The State Paper Office contains

a report of the same date, most probably the one presented to the King, signed by six shipbuilders and

Captain Waymouth, and counter signed by Northampton and four others. The Report is headed "The Prince

Royal: imperfections found upon view of the new work begun at Woolwich." It would occupy too much

[27] Alas! for the uncertainties of life! This noble young princethe hope of England and the joy of his

parents, from whom such great things were anticipatedfor he was graceful, frank, brave, active, and a lover

of the sea,was seized with a serious illness, and died in his eighteenth year, on the 16th November, 1612.

[28] Pett says she was to be 500 tons, but when he turned her out her burthen was rated at 700 tons.

[29] This conduct of Raleigh's was the more inexcusable, as there is in the State Paper Office a warrant dated

16th Nov., 1617, for the payment to Pett of 700 crowns "for building the new ship, the Destiny of London, of

700 tons burthen." The least he could have done was to have handed over to the builder his royal and usual

reward. In the above warrant, by the way, the title "our wellbeloved subject," the ordinary prefix to such

grants, has either been left blank or erased (it is difficult to say which), but was very significant of the

[30] Sir Giles Overreach, in the play of "A new way to pay old debts," by Philip Massinger. It was difficult

[31] Pett's method is described in a paper contained in the S.P.O., dated 21st Oct., 1626. The Trinity

[32] Memoirs of the Life and Services of RearAdmiral Sir William Symonds, Kt., p. 94.

[33] Pett's dwellinghouse at Rochester is thus described in an anonymous history of that town (p. 337, ed.

l817): "Beyond the Victualling Office, on the same side of the High Street, at Rochester, is an old

mansion, now occupied by a Mr. Morson, an attorney, which formerly belonged to the Petts, the celebrated

shipbuilders. The chimneypiece in the principal room is of wood, curiously carved, the upper part being

divided into compartments by caryatydes. The central compartment contains the family arms, viz., Or, on a

fesse, gu., between three pellets, a lion passant gardant of the field. On the back of the grate is a cast of

Neptune, standing erect in his car, with Triton blowing conches, and the date 1650."

Though a long period elapsed between the times of Phineas Pett and "Screw" Smith, comparatively little

improvement had been effected in the art of shipbuilding. The Sovereign of the Seas had not been excelled by

any ship of war built down to the end of last century.[1] At a comparatively recent date, ships continued to be

CHAPTER II. FRANCIS PETTIT SMITH: PRACTICAL INTRODUCER OF THE SCREW PROPELLER. 22

built of timber and plank, and impelled by sails and oars, as they had been for thousands of years before.

But this century has witnessed many marvellous changes. A new material of construction has been introduced

into shipbuilding, with entirely new methods of propulsion. Old things have been displaced by new; and the

magnitude of the results has been extraordinary. The most important changes have been in the use of iron and

steel instead of wood, and in the employment of the steamengine in impelling ships by the paddle or the

So long as timber was used for the construction of ships, the number of vessels built annually, especially in

so small an island as Britain, must necessarily have continued very limited. Indeed, so little had the

cultivation of oak in Great Britain been attended to, that all the royal forests could not have supplied

sufficient timber to build one lineofbattle ship annually; while for the mercantile marine, the world had to

Take, for instance, the seventyeight gun ship, the Hindostan, launched a few years ago. It would have

required 4200 loads of timber to build a ship of that description, and the growth of the timber would have

occupied seventy acres of ground during eighty years.[2] It would have needed something like 800,000 acres

of land on which to grow the timber for the ships annually built in this country for commercial purposes. And

timber ships are by no means lasting. The average durability of ships of war employed in active service, has

Indeed, years ago, the building of shipping in this country was much hindered by the want of materials.

The trade was being rapidly transferred to Canada and the United States. Some years since, an American

captain said to an Englishman, Captain Hall, when in China, "You will soon have to come to our country for

your ships: your little island cannot grow wood enough for a large marine." "Oh!" said the Englishman, "we

can build ships of iron!" "Iron?" replied the American in surprise, "why, iron sinks; only wood can float!"

"Well! you will find I am right." The prophecy was correct. The Englishman in question has now a fleet of

The use of iron in shipbuilding had small beginnings, like everything else. The established prejudicethat

iron must necessarily sink in waterlong continued to prevail against its employment. The first iron vessel

was built and launched about a hundred years since by John Wilkinson, of Bradley Forge, in Staffordshire. In

a letter of his, dated the 14th July, 1787, the original of which we have seen, he writes: "Yesterday week my

iron boat was launched. It answers all my expectations, and has convinced the unbelievers, who were 999 in

1000. It will be only a nine days' wonder, and afterwards a Columbus's egg." It was, however, more than a

nine days' wonder; for wood long continued to be thought the only material capable of floating.

Although Wilkinson's iron vessels continued to ply upon the Severn, more than twenty years elapsed before

another shipbuilder ventured to follow his example. But in 1810, Onions and Son, of Brosely, built several

iron vessels, also for use upon the Severn. Then, in 1815, Mr. Jervons, of Liverpool, built a small iron boat

for use on the Mersey. Six years later, in 1821, Mr. Aaron Manby designed an iron steam vessel, which was

built at the Horsley Company's Works, in Staffordshire. She sailed from London to Havre a few years later,

under the command of Captain (afterwards Sir Charles) Napier, RN. She was freighted with a cargo of

linseed and iron castings, and went up the Seine to Paris. It was some time, however, before iron came into

general use. Ten years later, in 1832, Maudslay and Field built four iron vessels for the East India Company.

In the course of about twenty years, the use of iron became general, not only for ships of war, but for

When ships began to be built of iron, it was found that they could be increased without limit, so long as coal,

iron, machinery, and strong men full of skill and industry, were procurable. The trade in shipbuilding

CHAPTER II. FRANCIS PETTIT SMITH: PRACTICAL INTRODUCER OF THE SCREW PROPELLER. 23

returned to Britain, where iron ships are now made and exported in large numbers; the mercantile marine of

this country exceeding in amount and tonnage that of all the other countries of the world put together. The

"wooden walls"[3] of England exist no more, for iron has superseded wood. Instead of constructing vessels

from the forest, we are now digging new navies out of the bowels of the earth, and our "walls," instead of

The attempt to propel ships by other means than sails and oars went on from century to century, and did not

succeed until almost within our own time. It is said that the Roman army under Claudius Codex was

transported into Sicily in boats propelled by wheels moved by oxen. Galleys, propelled by wheels in paddles,

were afterwards attempted. The Harleian MS. contains an Italian book of sketches, attributed to the 15th

century, in which there appears a drawing of a paddleboat, evidently intended to be worked by men.

Paddleboats, worked by horsepower, were also tried. Blasco Garay made a supreme effort at Barcelona in

1543. His vessel was propelled by a paddlewheel on each side, worked by forty men. But nothing came of

Many other efforts of a similar kind were made,by Savery among others,[4]until we come down to

Patrick Miller, of Dalswinton, who, in 1787, invented a doublehulled boat, which he caused to be propelled

on the Firth of Forth by men working a capstan which drove the paddles on each side. The men soon became

exhausted, and on Miller mentioning the subject to William Symington, who was then exhibiting his road

locomotive in Edinburgh, Symington at once said, "Why don't you employ steampower?"

There were many speculations in early times as to the application of steampower for propelling vessels

through the water. David Ramsay in 1618, Dr. Grant in 1632, the Marquis of Worcester in 1661, were among

the first in England to publish their views upon the subject. But it is probable that Denis Papin, the banished

Hugnenot physician, for some time Curator of the Royal Society, was the first who made a model

steamboat. Daring his residence in England, he was elected Professor of Mathematics in the University of

Marburg. It was while at that city that he constructed, in 1707, a small steamengine, which he fitted in a

boatune petite machine d'un, vaisseau a rouesand despatched it to England for the purpose of being tried

upon the Thames. The little vessel never reached England. At Munden, the boatmen on the River Weser,

thinking that, if successful, it would destroy their occupation, seized the boat, with its machine, and

barbarously destroyed it. Papin did not repeat his experiment, and died a few years later.

The next inventor was Jonathan Hulls, of Campden, in Gloucestershire. He patented a steamboat in 1736, and

worked the paddlewheel placed at the stern of the vessel by means of a Newcomen engine. He tried his boat

on the River Avon, at Evesham, but it did not succeed, and the engine was taken on shore again. A local poet

commemorated his failure in the following lines, which were remembered long after his steamboat

"Jonathan Hull, With his paper skull, Tried hard to make a machine That should go against wind and tide;

But he, like an ass, Couldn't bring it to pass, So at last was ashamed to be seen."

Nothing of importance was done in the direction of a steamengine able to drive paddles, until the invention

by James Watt, in 1769, of his doubleacting enginethe first step by which steam was rendered capable of

being successfully used to impel a vessel. But Watt was indifferent to taking up the subject of steam

navigation, as well as of steam locomotion. He refused many invitations to make steamengines for the

propulsion of ships, preferring to confine himself to his "regular established trade and manufacture," that of

making condensing steamengines, which had become of great importance towards the close of his life.

Two records exist of paddlewheel steamboats having been early tried in Franceone by the Comte

d'Auxiron and M. Perrier in 1774, the other by the Comte de Jouffroy in 1783but the notices of their

CHAPTER II. FRANCIS PETTIT SMITH: PRACTICAL INTRODUCER OF THE SCREW PROPELLER. 24

The idea, however, had been born, and was not allowed to die. When Mr. Miller of Dalswinton had revived

the notion of propelling vessels by means of paddlewheels, worked, as Savery had before worked them, by

means of a capstan placed in the centre of the vessel, and when he complained to Symington of the fatigue

caused to the men by working the capstan, and Symington had suggested the use of steam, Mr. Miller was

impressed by the idea, and proceeded to order a steamengine for the purpose of trying the experiment. The

boat was built at Edinburgh, and removed to Dalswinton Lake. It was there fitted with Symington's

steamengine, and first tried with success on the 14th of October, 1788, as has been related at length in Mr.

Nasmyth's 'Autobiography.' The experiment was repeated with even greater success in the charlotte Dundas

in 1801, which was used to tow vessels along the Forth and Clyde Canal, and to bring ships up the Firth of

The progress of steam navigation was nevertheless very slow. Symington's experiments were not renewed.

The Charlotte Dundas was withdrawn from use, because of the supposed injury to the banks of the Canal,

caused by the swell from the wheel. The steamboat was laid up in a creek at Bainsford, where it went to ruin,

and the inventor himself died in poverty. Among those who inspected the vessel while at work were Fulton,

the American artist, and Henry Bell, the Glasgow engineer. The former had already occupied himself with

model steamboats, both at Paris and in London; and in 1805 he obtained from Boulton and Watt, of

Birmingham, the steamengine required for propelling his paddle steamboat on the Hudson. The Clermont

was first started in August, 1807, and attained a speed of nearly five miles an hour. Five years later, Henry

It was not until 1815 that the first steamboat was seen on the Thames. This was the Richmond packet, which

plied between London and Richmond. The vessel was fitted with the first marine engine Henry Maudslay

ever made. During the same year, the Margery, formerly employed on the Firth of Forth, began plying

between Gravesend and London; and the Thames, formerly the Argyll, came round from the Clyde,

encountering rough seas, and making the voyage of 758 miles in five days and two hours. This was thought

extraordinarily rapidthough the voyage of about 3000 miles, from Liverpool to New York, can now be

In nearly all seagoing vessels, the Paddle has now almost entirely given place to the Screw. It was long before

this invention was perfected and brought into general use. It was not the production of one man, but of

several generations of mechanical inventors. A perfected invention does not burst forth from the brain like a

poetic thought or a fine resolve. It has to be initiated, laboured over, and pursued in the face of

Sometimes the idea is born in one generation, followed out in the next, and perhaps perfected in the third. In

an age of progress, one invention merely paves the way for another. What was the wonder of yesterday,

The first idea of the screw was thrown out by James Watt more than a century ago. Matthew Boulton, of

Birmingham, had proposed to move canal boats by means of the steamengine; and Dr. Small, his friend,

was in communication with James Watt, then residing at Glasgow, on the subject. In a letter from Watt to

Small, dated the 30th September, 1770, the former, after speaking of the condenser, and saying that it cannot

be dispensed with, proceeds: "Have you ever considered a spiral oar for that purpose [propulsion of canal

boats], or are you for two wheels?" Watt added a penandink drawing of his spiral oar, greatly resembling

the form of screw afterwards patented. Nothing, however, was actually done, and the idea slept.

It was revived again in 1785, by Joseph Bramah, a wonderful projector and inventor.[5] He took out a patent,

which included a rotatory steamengine, and a mode of propelling vessels by means either of a paddlewheel

or a "screw propeller." This propeller was "similar to the fly of a smokejack"; but there is no account of

CHAPTER II. FRANCIS PETTIT SMITH: PRACTICAL INTRODUCER OF THE SCREW PROPELLER. 25

Austria, also, claims the honour of the invention of the screw steamer. At Trieste and Vienna are statues

erected to Joseph Ressel, on whose behalf his countrymen lay claim to the invention; and patents for some

Patents were also taken out in England and Americaby W. Lyttleton in 1794; by E. Shorter in 1799; by J.

C. Stevens, of New Jersey, in 1804; by Henry James in 1811but nothing practical was accomplished.

Richard Trevethick, the anticipator of many things, also took out a patent in 1815, and in it he describes the

screw propeller with considerable minuteness. Millington, Whytock, Perkins, Marestier, and Brown followed,

The late Dr. Birkbeck, in a letter addressed to the 'Mechanics' Register,' in the year 1824, claimed that John

Swan, of 82, Mansfield Street, Kingsland Road, London, was the practical inventor of the screw propeller.

John Swan was a native of Coldingham, Berwickshire. He had removed to London, and entered the

employment of Messrs. Gordon, of Deptford. Swan fitted up a boat with his propeller, and tried it on a sheet

of water in the grounds of Charles Gordon, Esq., of Dulwich Hill. "The velocity and steadiness of the

motion," said Dr. Birkbeck in his letter, "so far exceeded that of the same model when impelled by

paddlewheels driven by the same spring, that I could not doubt its superiority; and the stillness of the water

was such as to give the vessel the appearance of being moved by some magical power."

Then comes another claimantMr. Robert Wilson, then of Dunbar (not far from Coldingham), but

afterwards of the Bridgewater Foundry, Patricroft. In his pamphlet, published a few years ago, he states that

he had long considered the subject, and in 1827 he made a small model, fitted with "revolving skulls," which

he tried on a sheet of water in the presence of the Hon. Capt. Anthony Maitland, son of the Earl of

Lauderdale. The experiment was successfulso successful, that when the "stern paddles" were in 1828 used

at Leith in a boat twentyfive feet long, with two men to work the machinery, the boat was propelled at an

average speed of about ten miles an hour; and the Society of Arts afterwards, in October, 1882, awarded Mr.

Wilson their silver medal for the "description, drawing, and models of stern paddles for propelling

steamboats, invented by him." The subject was, in 1833, brought by Sir John Sinclair under the consideration

of the Board of Admiralty; but the report of the officials (Oliver Lang, Abethell, Lloyd, and Kingston) was to

the effect that "the plan proposed (independent of practical difficulties) is objectionable, as it involves a

greater loss of power than the common mode of applying the wheels to the side." And here ended the

It will be observed, from what has been said, that the idea of a screw propeller is a very old one. Watt,

Bramah, Trevethick, and many more, had given descriptions of the screw. Trevethick schemed a number of

its forms and applications, which have been the subject of many subsequent patents. It has been so with many

inventions. It is not the man who gives the first idea of a machine who is entitled to the merit of its

introduction, or the man who repeats the idea, and rerepeats it, but the man who is so deeply impressed with

the importance of the discovery, that he insists upon its adoption, will take no denial, and at the risk of fame

and fortune, pushes through all opposition, and is determined that what he thinks he has discovered shall not

perish for want of a fair trial. And that this was the case with the practical introducer of the screw propeller

Francis Pettit Smith was born at Hythe, in the county of Kent, in 1808. His father was postmaster of the town,

and a person of much zeal and integrity. The boy was sent to school at Ashford, and there received a fair

amount of education, under the Rev. Alexander Power. Young Smith displayed no special characteristic

except a passion for constructing models of boats. When he reached manhood, he adopted the business of a

grazing farmer on Romney Marsh. He afterwards removed to Hendon, north of London, where he had plenty

of water on which to try his model boats. The reservoir of the Old Welsh Harp was close at handa place

CHAPTER II. FRANCIS PETTIT SMITH: PRACTICAL INTRODUCER OF THE SCREW PROPELLER. 26

Smith made many models of boats, his experiments extending over many years. In 1834, he constructed a

boat propelled by a wooden screw driven by a spring, the performance of which was thought extraordinary.

Where he had got his original idea is not known. It was floating about in many minds, and was no special

secret. Smith, however, arrived at the conclusion that his method of propelling steam vessels by means of a

screw was much superior to paddlesat that time exclusively employed. In the following year, 1835, he

constructed a superior model, with which he performed a number of experiments at Hendon. In May 1836, he

took out a patent for propelling vessels by means of a screw revolving beneath the water at the stern. He then

openly exhibited his invention at the Adelaide Gallery in London. Sir John Barrow, Secretary to the

Admiralty, inspected the model, and was much impressed by its action. During the time it was publicly

exhibited, an offer was made to purchase the invention for the Pacha of Egypt; but the offer was declined.

At this stage of his operations, Smith was joined by Mr. Wright, banker, and Mr. C. A. Caldwell, who had the

penetration to perceive that the invention was one of much promise, and were desirous of helping its

introduction to general use. They furnished Smith with the means of constructing a more complete model. In

the autumn of 1836, a small steam vessel of 10 tons burthen and six horsepower was built, further to test the

advantages of the invention. This boat was fitted with a wooden screw of two whole turns. On the 1st of

November the vessel was exhibited to the public on the Paddington Canal, as well as on the Thames, where

During the trips upon the Thames, a happy accident occurred, which first suggested the advantage of

reducing the length of the screw. The propeller having struck upon some obstacle in the water, about

onehalf of the length of the screw was broken off, and it was found that; the vessel immediately shot ahead

and attained a much greater speed than before. In consequence of this discovery, a new screw of a single turn

Having satisfied himself as to the eligibility of the propeller in smooth water, Mr. Smith then resolved to take

his little vessel to the open sea, and breast the winds and the waves. Accordingly, one Saturday in the month

of September 1837, he proceeded in his miniature boat, down the river, from Blackwall to Gravesend. There

he took a pilot on board, and went on to Ramsgate. He passed through the Downs, and reached Dover in

safety. A trial of the vessel's performance was made there in the presence of Mr. Wright, the banker, and Mr.

Peake, the civil engineer. From Dover the vessel went on to Folkestone and Hythe, encountering severe

weather. Nevertheless, the boat behaved admirably, and attained a speed of over seven miles an hour.

Though the weather had become stormy and boisterous, the little vessel nevertheless set out on her return

voyage to London. Crowds of people assembled to witness her departure, and many nautical men watched

her progress with solicitude as she steamed through the waves under the steep cliffs of the South Foreland.

The courage of the undertaking, and the unexpected good performance of the little vessel, rendered her an

object of great interest and excitement as she "screwed" her way along the coast.

The tiny vessel reached her destination in safety. Surely the difficulty of a testing trial, although with a model

screw, had at length been overcome. But no! The paddle still possessed the ascendency; and a thousand

interestsinvested capital, use and wont, and conservative instinctsall stood in the way.

Some years beforeindeed, about the time that Smith took out his patentCaptain Ericsson, the Swede,

invented a screw propeller. Smith took out his patent in May, 1836; and Ericsson in the following July.

Ericsson was a born inventor. While a boy in Sweden, he made saw mills and pumping engines, with tools

invented by himself. He learnt to draw, and his mechanical career began. When only twelve years old, he was

appointed a cadet in the Swedish corps of mechanical engineers, and in the following year he was put in

charge of a section of the Gotha Ship Canal, then under construction. Arrived at manhood, Ericsson went

over to England, the great centre of mechanical industry. He was then twentythree years old. He entered into

partnership with John Braithwaite, and with him constructed the Novelty, which took part in the locomotive

CHAPTER II. FRANCIS PETTIT SMITH: PRACTICAL INTRODUCER OF THE SCREW PROPELLER. 27

competition at Rainhill on the 6th October, 1829. The prize was awarded to Stephenson's Rocket on the 14th;

but it was acknowledged by The Times of the day that the Novelty was Stephenson's sharpest competitor.

Ericsson had a wonderfully inventive brain, a determined purpose, and a great capacity for work. When a

want was felt, he was immediately ready with an invention. The records of the Patent Office show his

incessant activity. He invented pumping engines, steam engines, fire engines, and caloric engines. His first

patent for a "reciprocating propeller" was taken out in October 1834. To exhibit its action, he had a small boat

constructed of only about two feet long. It was propelled by means of a screw; and was shown at work in a

circular bath in London. It performed its voyage round the basin at the rate of about three miles an hour. His

patent for a "spiral propeller," was taken out in July 1836. This was the invention, to exhibit which he had a

vessel constructed, of about 40 feet long, with two propellers, each of 5 feet 3 inches diameter.

This boat, the Francis B. Ogden, proved extremely successful. She moved at a speed of about ten miles an

hour. She was able to tow vessels of 140 tons burthen at the rate of seven miles an hour. Perceiving the

peculiar and admirable fitness of the screwpropeller for ships of war, Ericsson invited the Lords of the

Admiralty to take an excursion in tow of his experimental boat. "My Lords" consented; and the Admiralty

barge contained on this occasion, Sir Charles Adam, senior Lord, Sir William Symonds, surveyor, Sir

Edward Parry, of Polar fame, Captain Beaufort, hydrographer, and other men of celebrity. This distinguished

company embarked at Somerset House, and the little steamer, with her precious charge, proceeded down the

river to Limehouse at the rate of about ten miles an hour. After visiting the steamengine manufactory of

Messrs. Seawood, where their Lordships' favourite apparatus, the Morgan paddlewheel, was in course of

The experiment was perfectly successful, and yet the result was disappointment. A few days later, a letter

from Captain Beaufort informed Mr. Ericsson that their Lordships had certainly been "very much

disappointed with the result of the experiment." The reason for the disappointment was altogether

inexplicable to the inventor. It afterwards appeared, however, that Sir William Symonds, then Surveyor to the

Navy, had expressed the opinion that "even if the propeller had the power of propelling a vessel, it would be

found altogether useless in practice, because the power being applied at the stern, it would be absolutely

impossible to make the vessel steer!" It will be remembered that Francis Pettit Smith's screw vessel went to

sea in the course of the same year; and not only faced the waves, but was made to steer in a perfectly

Although the Lords of the Admiralty would not further encourage the screw propeller of Ericsson, an officer

of the United States Navy, Capt. R. F. Stockton, was so satisfied of its success, that after making a single trip

in the experimental steamboat from London Bridge to Greenwich, he ordered the inventor to build for him

forthwith two iron boats for the United States, with steam machinery and a propeller on the same plan. One of

these vesselsthe Robert F. Stocktonseventy feet in length, was constructed by Laird and Co., of

Birkenhead, in 1838, and left England for America in April 1839. Capt. Stockton so fully persuaded Ericsson

of his probable success in America, that the inventor at once abandoned his professional engagements in

England, and set out for the United States. It is unnecessary to mention the further important works of this

We may, however, briefly mention that in 1844, Ericsson constructed for the United States Government the

Princeton screw steamerthough he was never paid for his time, labour, and expenditure.[6] Undeterred by

their ingratitude, Ericsson nevertheless constructed for the same government, when in the throes of civil war,

the famous Monitor, the ironclad cupola vessel, and was similarly rewarded! He afterwards invented the

torpedo shipthe Destroyerthe use of which has fortunately not yet been required in sea warfare. Ericsson

still livesconstantly planning and schemingin his house in Beach Street, New York. He is now over

eighty years old having been born in 1803. He is strong and healthy. How has he preserved his vigorous

constitution? The editor of Scribner gives the answer: "The hall windows of his house are open, winter and

CHAPTER II. FRANCIS PETTIT SMITH: PRACTICAL INTRODUCER OF THE SCREW PROPELLER. 28

summer, and none but open gratefires are allowed. Insomnia never troubles him, for he falls asleep as soon

as his head touches the pillow. His appetite and digestion are always good, and he has not lost a meal in ten

years. What an example to the men who imagine it is hard work that is killing them in this career of

To return to "Screw" Smith, after the successful trial of his little vessel at sea in the autumn of 1837. He had

many difficulties yet to contend with. There was, first, the difficulty of a new invention, and the fact that the

paddleboat had established itself in public estimation. The engineering and shipbuilding world were dead

against him. They regarded the project of propelling a vessel by means of a screw as visionary and

preposterous. There was also the official unwillingness to undertake anything novel, untried, and contrary to

routine. There was the usual shaking of the head and the shrugging of the shoulders, as if the inventor were

either a mere dreamer or a projector eager to lay his hands upon the public purse. The surveyor of the navy

was opposed to the plan, because of the impossibility of making a vessel steer which was impelled from the

stern. "Screw" Smith bided his time; he continued undaunted, and was determined to succeed. He laboured

steadily onward, maintaining his own faith unshaken, and upholding the faith of the gentlemen who had

At the beginning of 1838 the Lords of the Admiralty requested Mr. Smith to allow his vessel to be tried under

their inspection. Two trials were accordingly made, and they gave so much satisfaction that the adoption of

the propeller for naval purposes was considered as a not improbable contingency. Before deciding finally

upon its adoption, the Lords of the Admiralty were anxious to see an experiment made with a vessel of not

less than 200 tons. Mr. Smith had not the means of accomplishing this by himself, but with the improved

prospects of the invention, capitalists now came to his aid. One of the most effective and energetic of these

was Mr. Henry Currie, banker; and, with the assistance of others, the "Ship Propeller Company" was formed,

The result was the Archimedes, a wooden vessel of 237 tons burthen. She was designed by Mr. Pasco, laid

down by Mr. Wimshurst in the spring of 1838, was launched on the 18th of October following, and made her

first trip in May 1839. She was fitted with a screw of one turn placed in the dead wood, and propelled by a

pair of engines of 80horse power. The vessel was built under the persuasion that her performance would be

considered satisfactory if a speed was attained of four or five knots an hour, where as her actual speed was

nine and a half knots. The Lords of the Admiralty were invited to inspect the ship. At the second trial Sir

Edward Parry, Sir William Symonds, Captain Basil Hall, and other distinguished persons were present.

The results were again satisfactory. The success of the Archimedes astonished the engineering world. Even

the Surveyor of the Royal Navy found that the vessel could steer! The Lords of the Admiralty could no longer

shut their eyes. But the invention could not at once be adopted. It must be tested by the best judges. The

vessel was sent to Dover to be tried with the best packets between Dover and Calais. Mr. Lloyd, the chief

engineer of the Navy, conducted the investigation, and reported most favourably as to the manner of her

performance. Yet several years elapsed before the screw was introduced into the service.

In 1840 the Archimedes was placed at the disposal of Captain Chappell, of the Royal Navy, who,

accompanied by Mr. Smith, visited every principal port in Great Britain. She was thus seen by shipowners,

marine engineers, and shipbuilders in every part of the kingdom. They regarded her with wonder and

admiration; yet the new mode of navigation was not speedily adopted. The paddlewheel still held its own.

The sentiment, if not the plant and capital, of the engineering world, were against the introduction of the

screw. After the vessel had returned from her circumnavigation of Great Britain, she was sent to Oporto, and

performed the voyage in sixtyeight and a half hours, then held to be the quickest voyage on record. She was

then sent to the Texel at the request of the Dutch Government. She went through the North Holland Canal,

visited Amsterdam, Antwerp, and other ports; and everywhere left the impression that the screw was an

CHAPTER II. FRANCIS PETTIT SMITH: PRACTICAL INTRODUCER OF THE SCREW PROPELLER. 29

Shipbuilders, however, continued to "fight shy" of the screw. The late Isambard Kingdon Brunel is entitled to

the credit of having first directed the attention of shipbuilders to this important invention. He was himself a

man of original views, free from bias, and always ready to strike out a fresh path in engineering works. He

was building a large new iron steamer at Bristol, the Great Britain, for passenger traffic between England and

America. He had intended to construct her as a paddle steamer; but hearing of the success of the Archimedes,

he inspected the vessel, and was so satisfied with the performance of the screw that he recommended his

directors to adopt this method for propelling the Great Britain. His advice was adopted, and the vessel was

altered so as to adapt her for the reception of the screw. The vessel was found perfectly successful, and on her

first voyage to London she attained the speed of ten knots an hour, though the wind and balance of tides were

against her. A few other merchant ships were built and fitted with the screw; the Princess Royal at Newcastle

in 1840, the Margaret and Senator at Hull, and the Great Northern at Londonderry, in 1841.

The Lords of the Admiralty made slow progress in adapting the screw for the Royal Navy. Sir William

Symonds, the surveyor and principal designer of Her Majesty's ships, was opposed to all new projects. He

hated steam power, and was utterly opposed to iron ships. He speaks of them in his journal as

"monstrous."[7] So long as he remained in office everything was done in a perfunctory way. A small vessel

named the Bee was built at Chatham in 1841, and fitted with both paddles and the screw for the purposes of

experiment. In the same year the Rattier, the first screw vessel built for the navy, was laid down at Sheerness.

Although of only 888 tons burthen, she was not launched until the spring of 1843. She was then fitted with

the same kind of screw as the Archimedes,that is, a doubleheaded screw of half a convolution. Experiments

went on for about three years, so as to determine the best proportions of the screw, and the proportions then

The Rattler was at length tried in a water tournament with the paddlesteamer Alecto, and signally defeated

her. Francis Pettit Smith, like Gulliver, may be said to have dragged the whole British fleet after him. Were

the paddle our only means of propulsion, our whole naval force would be reduced to a nullity. Hostile

gunners would wing a paddlesteamer as effectuaily as a sportsman wings a bird, and all the plating in the

The Admiralty could no longer defer the use of this important invention. Like all good things, it made its way

slowly and by degrees. The royal naval authorities, who in 1833 backed the side paddles, have since adopted

the screw in most of the shipsofwar. In all long seagoing voyages, also, the screw is now the favourite

mode of propulsion. Screw ships of prodigious size are now built and launched in all the shipbuilding ports

The introduction of iron as the material for shipbuilding has immensely advanced the interests of steam

navigation, as it enables the builders to construct vessels of great size with the finest lines, so as to attain the

One might have supposed that Francis Pettit Smith would derive some substantial benefit from his invention,

or at least that the Ship Propeller Company would distribute large dividends among their proprietors. Nothing

of the kind. Smith spent his money, his labour, and his ingenuity in conferring a great public benefit without

receiving any adequate reward; and the company, instead of distributing dividends, lost about 50,000L. in

introducing this great invention; after which, in 1856, the patentright expired. Three hundred and

twentyseven ships and vessels of all classes in the Royal Navy had then been fitted with the screw propeller,

and a much larger number in the merchant service; but since that time the number of screw propellers

In his comparatively impoverished condition it was found necessary to do something for the inventor. The

Civil Engineers, with Robert Stephenson, M.P., in the chair, entertained him at a dinner and presented him

with a handsome salver and claret jug. And that he might have something to put upon his salver and into his

CHAPTER II. FRANCIS PETTIT SMITH: PRACTICAL INTRODUCER OF THE SCREW PROPELLER. 30

claret jug, a number of his friends and admirers subscribed over 2000L. as a testimonial. The Government

appointed him Curator of the Patent Museum at South Kensington; the Queen granted him a pension on the

Civil List for 200L. a year; he was raised to the honour of knighthood in l87l, and three years later he died.

Francis Pettit Smith was not a great inventor. He had, like many others, invented a screw propeller. But,

while those others had given up the idea of prosecuting it to its completion, Smith stuck to his invention with

determined tenacity, and never let it go until he had secured for it a complete triumph. As Mr. Stephenson

observed at the engineer's meeting: "Mr. Smith had worked from a platform which might have been raised by

others, as Watt had done, and as other great men had done; but he had made a stride in advance which was

It was impossible to overrate the advantages which this and other countries had derived from his untiring and

devoted patience in prosecuting the invention to a successful issue." Baron Charles Dupin compared the

farmer Smith with the barber Arkwright: "He had the same perseverance and the same indomitable courage.

These two moral qualities enabled him to triumph over every obstacle." This was the merit of "Screw"

Smiththat he was determined to realize what his predecessors had dreamt of achieving; and he eventually

[1] In the Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects for 1860, it was pointed out that the general

dimensions and form of bottom of this ship were very similar to the most famous lineofbattle ships built

[2] According to the calculation of Mr. Chatfield, of Her Majesty's dockyard at Plymouth, in a paper read

[3] The phrase "wooden walls" is derived from the Greek. When the city of Athens was once in danger of

being attacked and destroyed, the oracle of Delphi was consulted. The inhabitants were told that there was no

safety for them but in their "wooden walls,"that is their shipping. As they had then a powerful fleet, the

oracle gave them rational advice, which had the effect of saving the Athenian people.

[4] An account of these is given by Bennet Woodcraft in his Sketch of the Origin and Progress of Steam

[6] The story is told in Scribner's Monthly Illustrated Magazine, for April 1879. Ericsson's modest bill was

only $15,000 for two years' labour. He was put off from year to year, and at length the Government refused to

pay the amount. "The American Government," says the editor of Scribner, "will not appropriate the money to

pay it, and that is all. It is said to be the nature of republics to be ungrateful; but must they also be dishonest?"

[7] Memoirs of the Life and Services of RearAdmiral Sir William Symonds, Kt., p. 332.

One of the most extraordinary things connected with Applied Science is the method by which the Navigator

is enabled to find the exact spot of sea on which his ship rides. There may be nothing but water and sky

within his view; he may be in the midst of the ocean, or gradually nearing the land; the curvature of the globe

baffles the search of his telescope; but if he have a correct chronometer, and can make an astronomical

observation, he may readily ascertain his longitude, and know his approximate positionhow far he is from

home, as well as from his intended destination. He is even enabled, at some special place, to send down his

grapplingirons into the sea, and pick up an electrical cable for examination and repair.

This is the result of a knowledge of Practical Astronomy. "Place an astronomer," says Mr. Newcomb, "on

board a ship; blindfold him; carry him by any route to any ocean on the globe, whether under the tropics or in

one of the frigid zones; land him on the wildest rock that can be found; remove his bandage, and give him a

chronometer regulated to Greenwich or Washington time, a transit instrument with the proper appliances, and

the necessary books and tables, and in a single clear night he can tell his position within a hundred yards by

observations of the stars. This, from a utilitarian point of view, is one of the most important operations of

The Marine Chronometer was the outcome of the crying want of the sixteenth century for an instrument that

should assist the navigator to find his longitude on the pathless ocean. Spain was then the principal naval

power; she was the most potent monarchy in Europe, and held half America under her sway. Philip III.

offered 100,000 crowns for any discovery by means of which the longitude might be determined by a better

method than by the log, which was found very defective. Holland next became a great naval power, and

followed the example of Spain in offering 30,000 florins for a similar discovery. But though some efforts

were made, nothing practical was done, principally through the defective state of astronomical instruments.

England succeeded Spain and Holland as a naval power; and when Charles II. established the Greenwich

Observatory, it was made a special point that Flamsteed, the AstronomerRoyal, should direct his best

energies to the perfecting of a method for finding the longitude by astronomical observations. But though

Flamsteed, together with Halley and Newton, made some progress, they were prevented from obtaining

ultimate success by the want of efficient chronometers and the defective nature of astronomical instruments.

Nothing was done until the reign of Queen Anne, when a petition was presented to the Legislature on the

25th of May, 1714, by "several captains of Her Majesty's ships, merchants in London, and commanders of

merchantmen, in behalf of themselves, and of all others concerned in the navigation of Great Britain," setting

forth the importance of the accurate discovery of the longitude, and the inconvenience and danger to which

ships were subjected from the want of some suitable method of discovering it. The petition was referred to a

committee, which took evidence on the subject. It appears that Sir Isaac Newton, with his extraordinary

sagacity, hit the mark in his report. "One is," he said, "by a watch to keep time exactly; but, by reason of the

motion of a ship, and the variation of heat and cold, wet and dry, and the difference of gravity in different

An Act was however passed in the Session of 1714, offering a very large public reward to inventors:

10,000L. to any one who should discover a method of determining the longitude to one degree of a great

circle, or 60 geographical miles; 15,000L. if it determined the same to twothirds of that distance, or 40

geographical miles; and 20,000L. if it determined the same to onehalf of the same distance, or 30

geographical miles. Commissioners were appointed by the same Act, who were instructed that "one moiety or

half part of such reward shall be due and paid when the said commissioners, or the major part of them, do

agree that any such method extends to the security of ships within 80 geographical miles of the shore, which

are places of the greatest danger; and the other moiety or half part when a ship, by the appointment of the said

commissioners, or the major part of them, shall actually sail over the ocean, from Great Britain to any such

port in the West Indies as those commissioners, or the major part of them, shall choose or nominate for the

The terms of this offer indicate how great must have been the risk and inconvenience which it was desired to

remedy. Indeed, it is almost inconceivable that a reward so great could be held out for a method which would

This splendid reward for a method of discovering the longitude was offered to the worldto inventors and

scientific men of all countries without restriction of race, or nation, or language. As might naturally be

expected, the prospect of obtaining it stimulated many ingenious men to make suggestions and contrive

experiments; but for many years the successful construction of a marine timekeeper seemed almost

hopeless. At length, to the surprise of every one, the prize was won by a village carpentera person of no

Even so distinguished an artist and philosopher as Sir Christopher Wren was engaged, as late in his life as the

year 1720, in attempting to solve this important problem. As has been observed, in the memoir of him

contained in the 'Biographia Britannica,'[3] "This noble invention, like some others of the most useful ones to

human life, seems to be reserved for the peculiar glory of an ordinary mechanic, who, by indefatigable

industry, under the guidance of no ordinary sagacity, hath seemingly at last surmounted all difficulties, and

brought it to a most unexpected degree of perfection." Where learning and science failed, natural genius

The truth is, that the great mechanic, like the great poet, is born, not made; and John Harrison, the winner of

the famous prize, was a born mechanic. He did not, however, accomplish his object without the exercise of

the greatest skill, patience, and perseverance. His efforts were long, laborious, and sometimes apparently

hopeless. Indeed, his life, so far as we can ascertain the facts, affords one of the finest examples of difficulties

encountered and triumphantly overcome, and of undaunted perseverance eventually crowned by success,

No complete narrative of Harrison's career was ever written. Only a short notice of him appears in the

'Biographia Britannica,' published in 1766, during his lifetime'the facts of which were obtained from

himself. A few notices of him appear in the 'Annual Register,' also published during his lifetime. The final

notice appeared in the volume published in 1777, the year after his death. No Life of him has since appeared.

Had he been a destructive hero, and fought battles by land or sea, we should have had biographies of him

without end. But he pursued a more peaceful and industrious course. His discovery conferred an incalculable

advantage on navigation, and enabled innumerable lives to be saved at sea; it also added to the domains of

science by its more exact measurement of time. But his memory has been suffered to pass silently away,

without any record being left for the benefit and advantage of those who have succeeded him. The following

memoir includes nearly all that is known of the life and labours of John Harrison.

He was born at Foulby, in the parish of Wragby, near Pontefract, Yorkshire, in March, 1693. His father,

Henry Harrison, was carpenter and joiner to Sir Rowland Winn, owner of the Nostell Priory estate. The

present house was built by the baronet on the site of the ancient priory. Henry Harrison was a sort of retainer

Little is known of the boy's education. It was certainly of a very inferior description. Like George

Stephenson, Harrison always had a great difficulty in making himself understood, either by speech or writing.

Indeed, every boardschool boy now receives a better education than John Harrison did a hundred and eighty

years ago. But education does not altogether come by reading and writing. The boy was possessed of

vigorous natural abilities. He was especially attracted by every machine that moved upon wheels. The boy

was 'father to the man.' When six years old, and lying sick of smallpox, a going watch was placed upon his

When seven years old he was taken by his father to Barrow, near BartononHumber, where Sir Rowland

Winn had another residence and estate. Henry Harrison was still acting as the baronet's carpenter and joiner.

In course of time young Harrison joined his father in the workshop, and proved of great use to him. His

opportunities for acquiring knowledge were still very few, but he applied his powers of observation and his

workmanship upon the things which were nearest him. He worked in wood, and to wood he first turned his

He was still fond of machines going upon wheels. He had enjoyed the sight of the big watch going upon brass

wheels when he was a boy; but, now that he was a workman in wood, he proposed to make an eightday

clock, with wheels of this material. He made the clock in 1713, when he was twenty years old,[4] so that he

must have made diligent use of his opportunities. He had of course difficulties to encounter, and nothing can

be accomplished without them; for it is difficulties that train the habits of application and perseverance. But

he succeeded in making an effective clock, which counted the time with regularity. This clock is still in

existence. It is to be seen at the Museum of Patents, South Kensington; and when we visited it a few months

ago it was going, and still marking the moments as they passed. It is contained in a case about six feet high,

with a glass front, showing a pendulum and two weights. Over the clock is the following inscription:

"This clock was made at Barrow, Lincolnshire, in the year 1715, by John Harrison, celebrated as the inventor

of a nautical timepiece, or chronometer, which gained the reward of 20,000L., offered by the Board of

"This clock strikes the hour, indicates the day of the month, and with one exception (the escapement) the

This, however, was only a beginning. Harrison proceeded to make better clocks; and then he found it

necessary to introduce metal, which was more lasting. He made pivots of brass, which moved more

conveniently in sockets of wood with the use of oil. He also caused the teeth of his wheels to run against

cylindrical rollers of wood, fixed by brass pins, at a proper distance from the axis of the pinions; and thus to a

In the meantime Harrison eagerly improved every incident from which he might derive further information.

There was a clergyman who came every Sunday to the village to officiate in the neighbourhood; and having

heard of the sedulous application of the young carpenter, he lent him a manuscript copy of Professor

Saunderson's discourses. That blind professor had prepared several lectures on natural philosophy for the use

of his students, though they were not intended for publication. Young Harrison now proceeded to copy them

out, together with the diagrams. Sometimes, indeed, he spent the greater part of the night in writing or

As part of his business, he undertook to survey land, and to repair clocks and watches, besides carrying on his

trade of a carpenter. He soon obtained a considerable knowledge of what had been done in clocks and

watches, and was able to do not only what the best professional workers had done, but to strike out entirely

new lights in the clock and watchmaking business. He found out a method of diminishing friction by adding

a joint to the pallets of the pendulum, whereby they were made to work in the nature of rollers of a large

radius, without any sliding, as usual, upon the teeth of the wheel. He constructed a clock on the recoiling

principle, which went perfectly, and never lost a minute within fourteen years. Sir Edmund Denison Beckett

says that he invented this method in order to save himself the trouble of going so frequently to oil the

escapement of a turret clock, of which he had charge; though there were other influences at work besides this.

But his most important invention, at this early period of his life, was his compensation pendulum. Every one

knows that metals expand with heat and contract by cold. The pendulum of the clock therefore expanded in

summer and contracted in winter, thereby interfering with the regular going of the clock. Huygens had by his

cylindrical checks removed the great irregularity arising from the unequal lengths of the oscillations; but the

pendulum was affected by the tossing of a ship at sea, and was also subject to a variation in weight,

depending on the parallel of latitude. Graham, the wellknown clockmaker, invented the mercurial

compensation pendulum, consisting of a glass or iron jar filled with quicksilver and fixed to the end of the

pendulum rod. When the rod was lengthened by heat, the quicksilver and the jar which contained it were

simultaneously expanded and elevated, and the centre of oscillation was thus continued at the same distance

But the difficulty, to a certain extent, remained unconquered until Harrison took the matter in hand. He

observed that all rods of metal do not alter their lengths equally by heat, or, on the contrary, become shorter

by cold, but some more sensibly than others. After innumerable experiments Harrison at length composed a

frame somewhat resembling a gridiron, in which the alternate bars were of steel and of brass, and so arranged

that those which expanded the most were counteracted by those which expanded the least. By this means the

pendulum contained the power of equalising its own action, and the centre of oscillation continued at the

same absolute distance from the point of suspension through all the variations of heat and cold during the

Thus by the year 1726, when he was only thirtythree years old, Harrison had furnished himself with two

compensation clocks, in which all the irregularities to which these machines were subject, were either

removed or so happily balanced, one metal against the other, that the two clocks kept time together in

different parts of his house, without the variation of more than a single second in the month. One of them,

indeed, which he kept by him for his own use, and constantly compared with a fixed star, did not vary so

much as one whole minute during the ten years that he continued in the country after finishing the

Living, as he did, not far from the sea, Harrison next endeavoured to arrange his timekeeper for purposes of

He tried his clock in a vessel belonging to BartononHumber; but his compensating pendulum could there

be of comparatively little use; for it was liable to be tossed hither or thither by the sudden motions of the ship.

He found it necessary, therefore, to mount a chronometer, or portable timekeeper, which might be taken from

place to place, and subjected to the violent and irregular motion of a ship at sea, without affecting its rate of

going. It was evident to him that the first mover must be changed from a weight and pendulum to a spring

He now applied his genius in this direction. After pondering over the subject, he proceeded to London in

1728, and exhibited his drawings to Dr. Halley, then AstronomerRoyal. The Doctor referred him to Mr.

George Graham, the distinguished horologer, inventor of the deadbeat escapement and the mercurial

pendulum. After examining the drawings and holding some converse with Harrison, Graham perceived him

to be a man of uncommon merit, and gave him every encouragement. He recommended him, however, to

Harrison returned home to Barrow to complete his task, and many years elapsed before he again appeared in

The remarkable success which Harrison had achieved in his compensating pendulum could not but urge him

on to further experiments. He was no doubt to a certain extent influenced by the reward of 20,000L. which

the English Government had offered for an instrument that should enable the longitude to be more accurately

determined by navigators at sea than was then possible; and it was with the object of obtaining pecuniary

assistance to assist him in completing his chronometer that Harrison had, in 1728, made his first visit to

The Act of Parliament offering this superb reward was passed in 1714, fourteen years before, but no attempt

had been made to claim it. It was right that England, then rapidly advancing to the first position as a

commercial nation, should make every effort to render navigation less hazardous. Before correct

chronometers were invented, or good lunar tables were prepared,[7] the ship, when fairly at sea, out of sight

of land, and battling with the winds and tides, was in a measure lost. No method existed for accurately

ascertaining the longitude. The ship might be out of its course for one or two hundred miles, for anything that

the navigator knew; and only the wreck of his ship on some unknown coast told of the mistake that he had

It may here be mentioned that it was comparatively easy to determine the latitude of a ship at sea every day

when the sun was visible. The latitudethat is, the distance of any spot from the equator and the

polemight be found by a simple observation with the sextant. The altitude of the sun at noon is found, and

The sextant, which is the instrument universally used at sea, was gradually evolved from similar instruments

used from the earliest times. The object of this instrument has always been to find the angular distance

between two bodiesthat is to say, the angle contained by two straight lines, drawn from those bodies to

meet in the observer's eye. The simplest instrument of this kind may be well represented by a pair of

compasses. If the hinge is held to the eye, one leg pointed to the distant horizon, and the other leg pointed to

the sun, the position of the two legs will show the angular distance of the sun from the horizon at the moment

Until the end of the seventeenth century, the instrument used was of this simple kind. It was generally a large

quadrant, with one or two bars moving on a hinge,to all intents and purposes a huge pair of compasses.

The direction of the sight was fixed by the use of a slit and a pointer, much as in the ordinary rifle. This

instrument was vastly improved by the use of a telescope, which not only allowed fainter objects to be seen,

but especially enabled the sight to be accurately directed to the object observed.

The instruments of the pretelescopic age reached their glory in the hands of Tycho Brahe. He used

magnificent instruments of the simple "pair of compasses" kindcircles, quadrants, and sextants. These

were for the most part ponderous fixed instruments of little or no use for the purposes of navigation. But

Tycho Brahe's sextant proved the forerunner of the modern instrument. The general structure is the same; but

the vast improvement of the modern sextant is due, firstly, to the use of the reflecting mirror, and, secondly,

to the use of the telescope for accurate sighting. These improvements were due to many scientific mento

William Gascoigne, who first used the telescope, about 1640; to Robert Hooke, who, in 1660, proposed to

apply it to the quadrant; to Sir Isaac Newton, who designed a reflecting quadrant;[8] and to John Hadley, who

introduced it. The modern sextant is merely a modification of Newton's or Badley's quadrant, and its present

It therefore became possible accurately to determine the position of a ship at sea as regarded its latitude. But

it was quite different as regarded the longitude that is, the distance of any place from a given meridian,

eastward or westward. In the case of longitude there is no fixed spot to which reference can be made. The

rotation of the earth makes the existence of such a spot impossible. The question of longitude is purely a

question of TIME. The circuit of the globe, east and west, is simply represented by twentyfour hours. Each

place has its own time. It is very easy to determine the local time at any spot by observations made at that

spot. But, as time is always changing, the knowledge of the local time gives no idea of the actual position;

and still less of a moving objectsay, of a ship at sea. But if, in any locality, we know the local time, and

also the local time of some other locality at that momentsay, of the Observatory at Greenwich we can, by

comparing the two local times, determine the difference of local times, or, what is the same thing, the

difference of longitude between the two places. It was necessary therefore for the navigator to be in

possession of a firstrate watch or chronometer, to enable him to determine accurately the position of his ship

Before the middle of the eighteenth century good watches were comparatively unknown. The navigator

mainly relied, for his approximate longitude, upon his Dead Reckoning, without any observation of the

heavenly bodies. He depended upon the accuracy of the course which he had steered by the compass, and the

mensuration of the ship's velocity by an instrument called the Log, as well as by combining and rectifying all

the allowances for drift, leeway, and so on, according to the trim of the ship; but all of these were liable to

much uncertainty, especially when the sea was in a boisterous condition. There was another and independent

course which might have been adoptedthat is, by observation of the moon, which is constantly moving

amongst the stars from west to east. But until the middle of the eighteenth century good lunar tables were as

Hence a method of ascertaining the longitude, with the same degree of accuracy which is attainable in respect

of latitude, had for ages been the grand desideratum for men "who go down to the sea in ships." Mr.

Macpherson, in his important work entitled 'The Annals of Commerce,' observes, "Since the year 1714, when

Parliament offered a reward of 20,000L. for the best method of ascertaining the longitude at sea, many

schemes have been devised, but all to little or no purpose, as going generally upon wrong principles, till that

heaventaught artist Mr. John Harrison arose;" and by him, as Mr. Macpherson goes on to say, the difficulty

The preamble of the Act of Parliament in question runs as follows: "Whereas it is well known by all that are

acquainted with the art of navigation that nothing is so much wanted and desired at sea as the discovery of the

longitude, for the safety and quickness of voyages, the preservation of ships and the lives of men," and so on.

The Act proceeds to constitute certain persons commissioners for the discovery of the longitude, with power

to receive and experiment upon proposals for that purpose, and to grant sums of money not exceeding 2000L.

to aid in such experiments. It will be remembered from what has been above stated, that a reward of 10,000L.

was to be given to the person who should contrive a method of determining the longitude within one degree

of a great circle, or 60 geographical miles; 15,000L. within 40 geographical miles; and 20,000L. within 30

It will, in these days, be scarcely believed that little more than a hundred and fifty years ago a prize of not

less than ten thousand pounds should have been offered for a method of determining the longitude within

sixty miles, and that double the amount should have been offered for a method of determining it within thirty

miles! The amount of these rewards is sufficient proof of the fearful necessity for improvement which then

existed in the methods of navigation. And yet, from the date of the passing of the Act in 1714 until the year

1736, when Harrison finished his first timepiece, nothing had been done towards ascertaining the longitude

more accurately, even within the wide limits specified by the Act of Parliament. Although several schemes

had been projected, none of them had proved successful, and the offered rewards therefore still remained

To return to Harrison. After reaching his home at Barrow, after his visit to London in 1728, he began his

experiments for the construction of a marine chronometer. The task was one of no small difficulty. It was

necessary to provide against irregularities arising from the motion of a ship at sea, and to obviate the effect of

alternations of temperature in the machine itself, as well as the oil with which it was lubricated. A thousand

obstacles presented themselves, but they were not enough to deter Harrison from grappling with the work he

Every one knows the beautiful machinery of a timepiece, and the perfect tools required to produce such a

machine. Some of these tools Harrison procured in London, but the greater number he provided for himself;

and many entirely new adaptations were required for his chronometer. As wood could no longer be

exclusively employed, as in his first clock, he had to teach himself to work accurately and minutely in brass

and other metals. Having been unable to obtain any assistance from the Board of Longitude, he was under the

necessity, while carrying forward his experiments, of maintaining himself by still working at his trade of a

carpenter and joiner. This will account for the very long period that elapsed before he could bring his

chronometer to such a state as that it might be tried with any approach to certainty in its operations.

Harrison, besides his intentness and earnestness, was a cheerful and hopeful man. He had a fine taste for

music, and organised and led the choir of the village church, which attained a high degree of perfection. He

invented a curious monochord, which was not less accurate than his clocks in the mensuration of time. His

ear was distressed by the ringing of bells out of tune, and he set himself to remedy them. At the parish church

of Hull, for instance, the bells were harsh and disagreeable, and by the authority of the vicar and

churchwardens he was allowed to put them into a state of exact tune, so that they proved entirely melodious.

But the great work of his life was his marine chronometer. He found it necessary, in the first place, to alter

the first mover of his clock to a spring wound up, so that the regularity of the motion might be derived from

the vibrations of balances, instead of those of a pendulum as in a standing clock. Mr. Folkes, President of the

Royal Society, when presenting the gold medal to Harrison in 1749, thus describes the arrangement of his

new machine. The details were obtained from Harrison himself, who was present. He had made use of two

balances situated in the same plane, but vibrating in contrary directions, so that the one of these being either

way assisted by the tossing of the ship, the other might constantly be just so much impeded by it at the same

time. As the equality of the times of the vibrations of the balance of a pocketwatch is in a great measure

owing to the spiral spring that lies under it, so the same was here performed by the like elasticity of four

cylindrical springs or worms, applied near the upper and lower extremities of the two balances above

Then came in the question of compensation. Harrison's experience with the compensation pendulum of his

clock now proved of service to him. He had proceeded to introduce a similar expedient in his proposed

chronometer. As is well known to those who are acquainted with the nature of springs moved by balances,

the stronger those springs are, the quicker the vibrations of the balances are performed, and vice versa; hence

it follows that those springs, when braced by cold, or when relaxed by heat, must of necessity cause the

timekeeper to go either faster or slower, unless some method could be found to remedy the inconvenience.

The method adopted by Harrison was his compensation balance, doubtless the backbone of his invention. His

"thermometer kirb," he himself says, "is composed of two thin plates of brass and steel, riveted together in

several places, which, by the greater expansion of brass than steel by heat and contraction by cold, becomes

convex on the brass side in hot weather and convex on the steel side in cold weather; whence, one end being

fixed, the other end obtains a motion corresponding with the changes of heat and cold, and the two pins at the

end, between which the balance spring passes, and which it alternately touches as the spring bends and

unbends itself, will shorten or lengthen the spring, as the change of heat or cold would otherwise require to be

done by hand in the manner used for regulating a common watch." Although the method has since been

improved upon by Leroy, Arnold, and Earnshaw, it was the beginning of all that has since been done in the

perfection of marine chronometers. Indeed, it is amazing to think of the number of clever, skilful, and

industrious men who have been engaged for many hundred years in the production of that exquisite

fabricso useful to everybody, whether scientific or otherwise, on land or sea the modern watch.

It is unnecessary here to mention in detail the particulars of Harrison's invention. These were published by

himself in his 'Principles of Mr. Harrison's Timekeeper.' It may, however, be mentioned that he invented a

method by which the chronometer might be kept going without losing any portion of time. This was during

the process of winding up, which was done once in a day. While the mainspring was being wound up, a

After seven years' labour, during which Harrison encountered and overcame numerous difficulties, he at last

completed his first marine chronometer. He placed it in a sort of moveable frame, somewhat resembling what

the sailors call a 'compass jumble,' but much more artificially and curiously made and arranged. In this state

the chronometer was tried from time to time in a large barge on the river Humber, in rough as well as in

smooth weather, and it was found to go perfectly, without losing a moment of time.

Such was the condition of Harrison's chronometer when he arrived with it in London in 1735, in order to

apply to the commissioners appointed for providing a public reward for the discovery of the longitude at sea.

He first showed it to several members of the Royal Society, who cordially approved of it. Five of the most

prominent membersDr. Bailey, Dr. Smith, Dr. Bradley, Mr. John Machin, and Mr. George

Grahamfurnished Harrison with a certificate, stating that the principles of his machine for measuring time

promised a very great and sufficient degree of exactness. In consequence of this certificate, the machine, at

the request of the inventor, and at the recommendation of the Lords of the Admiralty, was placed on board a

Sir Charles Wager, then first Lord of the Admiralty, wrote to the captain of the Centurion, stating that the

instrument had been approved by mathematicians as the best that had been made for measuring time; and

requesting his kind treatment of Mr. Harrison, who was to accompany it to Lisbon. Captain Proctor answered

the First Lord from Spithead, dated May l7th, 1736, promising his attention to Harrison's comfort, but

intimating his fear that he had attempted impossibilities. It is always so with a new thing. The first

steamengine, the first gaslight, the first locomotive, the first steamboat to America, the first electric

This first chronometer behaved very well on the outward voyage in the Centurion. It was not affected by the

roughest weather, or by the working of the ship through the rolling waves of the Bay of Biscay. It was

brought back, with Harrison, in the Orford manofwar, when its great utility was proved in a remarkable

manner, although, from the voyage being nearly on a meridian, the risk of losing the longitude was

comparatively small. Yet the following was the certificate of the captain of the ship, dated the 24th June,

1737: "When we made the land, the said land, according to my reckoning (and others), ought to have been the

Start; but, before we knew what land it was, John Harrison declared to me and the rest of the ship's company

that, according to his observations with his machine, it ought to be the Lizardthe which, indeed, it was

found to be, his observation showing the ship to be more west than my reckoning, above one degree and

Six days laterthat is, on the 30th Junethe Board of Longitude met, when Harrison was present, and

produced the chronometer with which he had made the voyage to Lisbon and back. The minute states: "Mr.

John Harrison produced a new invented machine, in the nature of clockwork, whereby he proposes to keep

time at sea with more exactness than by any other instrument or method hitherto contrived, in order to the

discovery of the longitude at sea; and proposes to make another machine of smaller dimensions within the

space of two years, whereby he will endeavour to correct some defects which he hath found in that already

prepared, so as to render the same more perfect; which machine, when completed, he is desirous of having

tried in one of His Majesty's ships that shall be bound to the West Indies; but at the same time represented

that he should not be able, by reason of his necessitous circumstances, to go on and finish his said machine

without assistance, and requested that he may be furnished with the sum of 500L., to put him in a capacity to

The result of the meeting was that 500L. was ordered to be paid to Harrison, one moiety as soon as

convenient, and the other when he has produced a certificate from the captain of one of His Majesty's ships

that he has put the machine on board into the captain's possession. Mr. George Graham, who was consulted,

urged that the Commissioners should grant Harrison at least 1000L., but they only awarded him half the sum,

and at first only a moiety of the amount voted. At the recommendation of Lord Monson, who was present,

Harrison accepted the 250L. as a help towards the heavy expenses which he had already incurred, and was

again about to incur, in perfecting the invention. He was instructed to make his new chronometer of less

dimensions, as the one exhibited was cumbersome and heavy, and occupied too much space on board.

He accordingly proceeded to make his second chronometer. It occupied a space of only about half the size of

the first. He introduced several improvements. He lessened the number of the wheels, and thereby diminished

friction. But the general arrangement remained the same. This second machine was finished in 1739. It was

more simple in its arrangement, and less cumbrous in its dimensions. It answered even better than the first,

and though it was not tried at sea its motions were sufficiently exact for finding the longitude within the

Not satisfied with his two machines, Harrison proceeded to make a third. This was of an improved

construction, and occupied still less space, the whole of the machine and its apparatus standing upon an area

of only four square feet. It was in such forwardness in January, 1741, that it was exhibited before the Royal

Society, and twelve of the most prominent members signed a certificate of "its great and excellent use, as

well for determining the longitude at sea as for correcting the charts of the coasts." The testimonial

concluded: "We do recommend Mr. Harrison to the favour of the Commissioners appointed by Act of

Parliament as a person highly deserving of such further encouragement and assistance as they shall judge

proper and sufficient to finish his third machine." The Commissioners granted him a further sum of 500L.

Harrison was already reduced to necessitous circumstances by his continuous application to the improvement

of the timekeepers. He had also got into debt, and required further assistance to enable him to proceed with

Although Harrison had promised that the third machine would be ready for trial on August 1, 1743, it was not

finished for some years later. In June, 1746, we find him again appearing before the Board, asking for further

assistance. While proceeding with his work he found it necessary to add a new spring, "having spent much

time and thought in tempering them." Another 500L. was voted to enable him to pay his debts, to maintain

Three years later he exhibited his third machine to the Royal Society, and on the 30th of November, 1749, he

was awarded the Gold Medal for the year. In presenting it, Mr. Folkes, the President, said to Mr. Harrison, "I

do here, by the authority and in the name of the Royal Society of London for the improving of natural

knowledge, present you with this small but faithful token of their regard and esteem. I do, in their name

congratulate you upon the successes you have already had, and I most sincerely wish that all your future trials

may in every way prove answerable to these beginnings, and that the full accomplishment of your great

undertaking may at last be crowned with all the reputation and advantage to yourself that your warmest

wishes may suggest, and to which so many years so laudably and so diligently spent in the improvement of

those talents which God Almighty has bestowed upon you, will so justly entitle your constant and unwearied

Mr. Folkes, in his speech, spoke of Mr. Harrison as "one of the most modest persons he had ever known. In

speaking," he continued, "of his own performances, he has assured me that, from the immense number of

diligent and accurate experiments he has made, and from the severe tests to which he has in many ways put

his instrument, he expects he shall be able with sufficient certainty, through all the greatest variety of seasons

and the most irregular motions of the sea, to keep time constantly, without the variation of so much as three

seconds in a week, a degree of exactness that is astonishing and even stupendous, considering the immense

number of difficulties, and those of very different sorts, which the author of these inventions must have had

Although it is common enough now to make firstrate chronometers sufficient to determine the longitude

with almost perfect accuracy in every clime of the worldit was very different at that time, when Harrison

was occupied with his laborious experiments. Although he considered his third machine to be the ne plus

ultra of scientific mechanism, he nevertheless proceeded to construct a fourth timepiece, in the form of a

pocket watch about five inches in diameter. He found the principles which he had adopted in his larger

machines applied equally well in the smaller, and the performances of the last surpassed his utmost

expectations. But in the meantime, as his third timekeeper was, in his opinion, sufficient to supply the

requirements of the Board of Longitude as respected the highest reward offered, he applied to the

Commissioners for leave to try that instrument on board a royal ship to some port in the West Indies, as

Though Harrison's third timekeeper was finished about the year 1758, it was not until March 12, 1761, that he

received orders for his son William to proceed to Portsmouth, and go on board the Dorsetshire manofwar,

to proceed to Jamaica. But another tedious delay occurred. The ship was ordered elsewhere, and William

Harrison, after remaining five months at Portsmouth, returned to London. By this time, John Harrison had

finished his fourth timepiecethe small one, in the form of a watch. At length William Harrison set sail with

this timekeeper from Portsmouth for Jamaica, on November 18th, 1761, in the Deptford manofwar. The

Deptford had fortythree ships in convoy, and arrived at Jamaica on the l9th of January, 1762, three days

before the Beaver, another of His Majesty's shipsofwar, which had sailed from Portsmouth ten days before

the Deptford, but had lost her reckoning and been deceived in her longitude, having trusted entirely to the log.

Harrison's timepiece had corrected the log of the Deptford to the extent of three degrees of longitude, whilst

several of the ships in the fleet lost as much as five degrees! This shows the haphazard way in which

When the Deptford arrived at Port Royal, Jamaica, the timekeeper was found to be only five and one tenth

seconds in error; and during the voyage of four months, on its return to Portsmouth on March 26th, 1762, it

was found (after allowing for the rate of gain or loss) to have erred only one minute fiftyfour and a half

seconds. In the latitude of Portsmouth this only amounted to eighteen geographical miles, whereas the Act

had awarded that the prize should be given where the longitude was determined within the distance of thirty

geographical miles. One would have thought that Harrison was now clearly entitled to his reward of 20,000L.

Not at all! The delays interposed by Government are long and tedious, and sometimes insufferable. Harrison

had accomplished more than was needful to obtain the highest reward which the Board of Longitude had

publicly offered. But they would not certify that he had won the prize. On the contrary, they started numerous

objections, and continued for years to subject him to vexatious delays and disappointments. They pleaded

that the previous determination of the longitude of Jamaica by astronomical observation was unsatisfactory;

that there was no proof of the chronometer having maintained a uniform rate during the voyage; and on the

17th of August, 1762, they passed a resolution, stating that they "were of opinion that the experiments made

It was accordingly necessary for Harrison to petition Parliament on the subject. Three reigns had come and

gone since the Act of Parliament offering the reward had been passed. Anne had died; George I. and George

II. had reigned and died; and now, in the reign of George III.thirtyfive years after Harrison had begun his

labours, and after he had constructed four several marine chronometers, each of which was entitled to win the

full prize,an Act of Parliament was passed enabling the inventor to obtain the sum of 5000L. as part of the

reward. But the Commissioners still hesitated. They differed about the tempering of the springs. They must

have another trial of the timekeeper, or anything with which to put off a settlement of the claim. Harrison was

ready for any further number of trials; and in the meantime the Commissioners merely paid him a further sum

Two more dreary years passed. Nothing was done in 1763 except a quantity of interminable talk at the Board

of Commissioners. At length, on the 28th of March, 1764, Harrison's son again departed with the timekeeper

on board the ship Tartar for Barbadoes. He returned in about four months, during which time the instrument

enabled the longitude to be ascertained within ten miles, or onethird of the required geographical distance.

Harrison memorialised the Commissioners again and again, in order that he might obtain the reward publicly

At length the Commissioners could no longer conceal the truth. In September,1764, they virtually recognised

Harrison's claim by paying him 1000L. on account; and, on the 9th of February,1765, they passed a

resolution setting forth that they were "unanimously of opinion that the said timekeeper has kept its time with

sufficient correctness, without losing its longitude in the voyage from Portsmouth to Barbadoes beyond the

nearest limit required by the Act l2th of Queen Anne, but even considerably within the same." Yet they

would not give Harrison the necessary certificate, though they were of opinion that he was entitled to be paid

It is pleasant to contrast the generous conduct of the King of Sardinia with the procrastinating and illiberal

spirit which Harrison met with in his own country. During the same year in which the above resolution was

passed, the Sardinian minister ordered four of Harrison's timekeepers at the price of 1000L. each, at the

special instance of the King of Sardinia "as an acknowledgement of Mr. Harrison's ingenuity, and as some

recompense for the time spent by him for the general good of mankind." This grateful attention was all the

more praiseworthy, as Sardinia could not in any way be regarded as a great maritime power.

Harrison was now becoming old and feeble. He had attained the age of seventyfour. He had spent forty long

years in working out his invention. He was losing his eyesight, and could not afford to wait much longer. Still

"Full little knowest thou, who hast not tried, What hell it is in suing long to bide; To lose good days, that

might be better spent; To waste long nights in pensive discontent; To spend today, to be put back

But Harrison had not lost his spirit. On May 30th, 1765, he addressed another remonstrance to the Board,

containing much stronger language than he had yet used. "I cannot help thinking," he said, "that I am

extremely illused by gentlemen from whom I might have expected a different treatment; for, if the Act of

the l2th of Queen Anne be deficient, why have I so long been encouraged under it, in order to bring my

invention to perfection? And, after the completion, why was my son sent twice to the West Indies? Had it

been said to my son, when he received the last instruction, 'There will, in case you succeed, be a new Act on

your return, in order to lay you under new restrictions, which were not thought of in the Act of the l2th of

Queen Anne,' I say, had this been the case, I might have expected some such treatment as that I now meet

"It must be owned that my case is very hard; but I hope I am the first, and for my country's sake I hope I shall

be the last, to suffer by pinning my faith upon an English Act of Parliament. Had I received my just

rewardfor certainly it may be so called after forty years' close application of the talent which it has pleased

God to give methen my invention would have taken the course which all improvements in this world do;

that is, I must have instructed workmen in its principles and execution, which I should have been glad of an

opportunity of doing. But how widely different this is from what is now proposed, viz., for me to instruct

people that I know nothing of, and such as may know nothing of mechanics; and, if I do not make them

"Hard fate indeed to me, but still harder to the world, which may be deprived of this my invention, which

must be the case, except by my open and free manner in describing all the principles of it to gentlemen and

noblemen who almost at all times have had free recourse to my instruments. And if any of these workmen

have been so ingenious as to have got my invention, how far you may please to reward them for their piracy

must be left for you to determine; and I must set myself down in old age, and thank God I can be more easy

in that I have the conquest, and though I have no reward, than if I had come short of the matter and by some

The Right Honourable the Earl of Egmont was in the chair of the Board of Longitude on the day when this

letter was readJune 13, 1765. The Commissioners were somewhat startled by the tone which the inventor

had taken. Indeed, they were rather angry. Mr. Harrison, who was in waiting, was called in. After some rather

hot speaking, and after a proposal was made to Harrison which he said he would decline to accede to "so long

as a drop of English blood remained in his body," he left the room. Matters were at length arranged. The Act

of Parliament (5 Geo. III. cap. 20) awarded him, upon a full discovery of the principles of his timekeeper,

the payment of such a sum, as with the 2500L. he had already received, would make one half of the reward;

and the remaining half was to be paid when other chronometers had been made after his design, and their

capabilities fully proved. He was also required to assign his four chronometersone of which was styled a

Harrison at once proceeded to give full explanations of the principles of his chronometer to Dr. Maskelyne,

and six other gentlemen, who had been appointed to receive them. He took his timekeeper to pieces in their

presence, and deposited in their hands correct drawings of the same, with the parts, so that other skilful

makers might construct similar chronometers on the same principles. Indeed, there was no difficulty in

making them; after his explanations and drawings had been published. An exact copy of his last watch was

made by the ingenious Mr. Kendal; and was used by Captain Cook in his three years' circumnavigation of the

England had already inaugurated that series of scientific expeditions which were to prove so fruitful of

results, and to raise her naval reputation to so great a height. In these expeditions, the officers, the sailors, and

the scientific men, were constantly brought face to face with unforeseen difficulties and dangers, which

brought forth their highest qualities as men. There was, however, some intermixture of narrowness in the

minds of those who sent them forth. For instance, while Dr. Priestley was at Leeds, he was asked by Sir

Joseph Banks to join Captain Cook's second expedition to the Southern Seas, as an astronomer. Priestley gave

his assent, and made arrangements to set out. But some weeks later, Banks informed him that his appointment

had been cancelled, as the Board of Longitude objected to his theology. Priestley's otherwise gentle nature

was roused. "What I am, and what they are, in respect of religion," he wrote to Banks, in December, 1771,

"might easily have been known before the thing was proposed to me at all. Besides, I thought that this had

been a business of philosophy, and not of divinity. If, however, this be the case, I shall hold the Board of

Captain Cook was appointed to the command of the Resolution, and Captain Wallis to the command of the

Adventure, in November, 1771. They proceeded to equip the ships; and amongst the other instruments taken

on board Captain Cook's ship, were two timekeepers, one made by Mr. Larcum Kendal, on Mr. Harrison's

principles, and the other by Mr. John Arnold, on his own. The expedition left Deptford in April, 1772; and

shortly afterwards sailed for the South Seas. "Mr. Kendal's watch" is the subject of frequent notices in

Captain Cook's account. At the Cape of Good Hope, it is said to have "answered beyond all expectation."

Further south, in the neighbourhood of Cape Circumcision, he says, "the use of the telescope is found

difficult at first, but a little practice will make it familiar. By the assistance of the watch we shall be able to

discover the greatest error this method of observing the longitude at sea is liable to." It was found that

Harrison's watch was more correct than Arnold's, and when near Cape Palliser in New Zealand, Cook says,

"this day at noon, when we attended the windingup of the watches, the fusee of Mr. Arnold's would not turn

round, so that after several unsuccessful trials we were obliged to let it go down." From this time, complete

reliance was placed upon Harrison's chronometer. Some time later, Cook says, "I must here take notice that

our longitude can never be erroneous while we have so good a guide as Mr. Kendal's watch." It may be

observed, that at the beginning of the voyage, observations were made by the lunar tables; but these, being

To return to Harrison. He continued to be worried by official opposition. His claims were still unsatisfied. His

watch at home underwent many more trials. Dr. Maskelyne, the Royal Astronomer, was charged with being

unfavourable to the success of chronometers, being deeply interested in finding the longitude by lunar tables;

although this method is now almost entirely superseded by the chronometer. Harrison accordingly could not

get the certificate of what was due to him under the Act of Parliament. Years passed before he could obtain

the remaining amount of his reward. It was not until the year 1773, or fortyfive years after the

commencement of his experiments, that he succeeded in obtaining it. The following is an entry in the list of

supplies granted by Parliament in that year: "June 14. To John Harrison, as a further reward and

encouragement over and above the sums already received by him, for his invention of a timekeeper for

ascertaining the longitude at sea, and his discovery of the principles upon which the same was constructed,

John Harrison did not long survive the settlement of his claims; for he died on the 24th of March, 1776, at the

age of eightythree. He was buried at the southwest corner of Hampstead parish churchyard, where a

tombstone was erected to his memory, and an inscription placed upon it commemorating his services. His

wife survived him only a year; she died at seventytwo, and was buried in the same tomb. His son, William

Harrison, F.R.S., a deputylientenant of the counties of Monmouth and Middlesex, died in 1815, at the ripe

age of eightyeight, and was also interred there. The tomb having stood for more than a century, became

somewhat dilapidated; when the Clockmakers' Company of the City of London took steps in 1879 to

reconstruct it, and recut the inscriptions. An appropriate ceremony took place at the final uncovering of the

But perhaps the most interesting works connected with John Harrison and the great labour of his life, are the

wooden clock at the South Kensington Museum, and the four chronometers made by him for the

Government, which are still preserved at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. The three early ones are of great

weight, and can scarcely be moved without some bodily labour. But the fourth, the marine chronometer or

watch, is of small dimensions, and is easily handled. It still possesses the power of going accurately; as does

"Mr. Kendal's watch," which was made exactly after it. These will always prove the best memorials of this

Before concluding this brief notice of the life and labours of John Harrison, it becomes me to thank most

cordially Mr. Christie, AstronomerRoyal, for his kindness in exhibiting the various chronometers deposited

at the Greenwich Observatory, and for his permission to inspect the minutes of the Board of Longitude,

where the various interviews between the inventor and the commissioners, extending over many years, are

faithfully but too procrastinatingly recorded. It may be finally said of John Harrison, that by his invention of

the chronometerthe eversleepless and evertrusty friend of the mariner he conferred an incalculable

benefit on science and navigation, and established his claim to be regarded as one of the greatest benefactors

POstscript.In addition to the information contained in this chapter, I have been recently informed by the

Rev. Mr. Sankey, vicar of Wragby, that the family is quite extinct in the parish, except the wife of a plumber,

who claims relationship with Harrison. The representative of the Winn family was created Lord St. Oswald in

1885. Harrison is not quite forgotten at Foulby. The house in which he was born was a low thatched cottage,

with two rooms, one used as a living room, and the other as a sleeping room. The house was pulled down

about forty years ago; but the entrance door, being of strong, hard wood, is still preserved. The vicar adds that

young Harrison would lie out on the grass all night in summer time, studying the details of his wooden clock.

[2] Popular Astronomy. By Simon Newcomb, LL.D., Professor U.S. Naval Observatory.

[3] Biographia Britannica, vol. vi. part 2, p. 4375. This volume was published in 1766, before the final reward

[4] This clock is in the possession of Abraham Riley, of Bromley, near Leeds. He informs us that the clock is

made of wood throughout, excepting the escapement and the dial, which are made of brass. It bears the mark

[5] Harrison's compensation pendulum was afterwards improved by Arnold, Earnshaw, and other English

[7] No trustworthy lunar tables existed at that time. It was not until the year 1753 that Tobias Mayer, a

German, published the first lunar tables which could be relied upon. For this, the British Government

[8] Sir Isaac Newton gave his design to Edmund Halley, then AstronomerRoyal. Halley laid it on one side,

and it was found among his papers after his death in 1742, twentyfive years after the death of Newton. A

similar omission was made by Sir G. B. Airy, which led to the discovery of Neptune being attributed to

Industry puts an entirely new face upon the productions of nature. By labour man has subjugated the world,

reduced it to his dominion, and clothed the earth with a new garment. The first rude plough that man thrust

into the soil, the first rude axe of stone with which he felled the pine, the first rude canoe scooped by him

from its trunk to cross the river and reach the greener fields beyond, were each the outcome of a human

faculty which brought within his reach some physical comfort he had never enjoyed before.

Material things became subject to the influence of labour. From the clay of the ground, man manufactured the

vessels which were to contain his food. Out of the fleecy covering of sheep, he made clothes for himself of

many kinds; from the flax plant he drew its fibres, and made linen and cambric; from the hemp plant he made

ropes and fishing nets; from the cotton pod he fabricated fustians, dimities, and calicoes. From the rags of

these, or from weed and the shavings of wood, he made paper on which books and newspapers were printed.

Lead was formed by him into printer's type, for the communication of knowledge without end.

But the most extraordinary changes of all were made in a heavy stone containing metal, dug out of the

ground. With this, when smelted by wood or coal, and manipulated by experienced skill, iron was produced.

From this extraordinary metal, the soul of every manufacture, and the mainspring perhaps of civilised

societyarms, hammers, and axes were made; then knives, scissors, and needles; then machinery to hold

and control the prodigious force of steam; and eventually railroads and locomotives, ironclads propelled by

The silk manufacture, though originating in the secretion of a tiny caterpillar, is perhaps equally

extraordinary. Hundreds of thousands of pounds weight of this slender thread, no thicker than the filaments

spun by a spider, give employment to millions of workers throughout the world. Silk, and the many textures

wrought from this beautiful material, had long been known in the East; but the period cannot be fixed when

man first divested the chrysalis of its dwelling, and discovered that the little yellow ball which adhered to the

leaf of the mulberry tree, could be evolved into a slender filament, from which tissues of endless variety and

beauty could be made. The Chinese were doubtless among the first who used the thread spun by the silkworm

for the purposes of clothing. The manufacture went westward from China to India and Persia, and from

thence to Europe. Alexander the Great brought home with him a store of rich silks from Persia Aristotle and

Pliny give descriptions of the industrious little worm and its productions. Virgil is the first of the Roman

writers who alludes to the production of silk in China; and the terms he employs show how little was then

known about the article. It was introduced at Rome about the time of Julius Caesar, who displayed a

profusion of silks in some of his magnificent theatrical spectacles. Silk was so valuable that it was then sold

for an equal weight of gold. Indeed, a law was passed that no man should disgrace himself by wearing a

silken garment. The Emperor Heliogabalus despised the law, and wore a dress composed wholly of silk. The

example thus set was followed by wealthy citizens. A demand for silk from the East soon became general.

It was not until about the middle of the sixth century that two Persian monks, who had long resided in China,

and made themselves acquainted with the mode of rearing the silkworm, succeeded in carrying the eggs of

the insect to Constantinople. Under their direction they were hatched and fed. A sufficient number of

butterflies were saved to propagate the race, and mulberry trees were planted to afford nourishment to the

rising generations of caterpillars. Thus the industry was propagated. It spread into the Italian peninsula; and

eventually manufactures of silk velvet, damask, and satin became established in Venice, Milan, Florence,

Indeed, for several centuries the manufacture of silk in Europe was for the most part confined to Italy. The

rearing of silkworms was of great importance in Modena, and yielded a considerable revenue to the State.

The silk produced there was esteemed the best in Lombardy. Until the beginning of the sixteenth century,

Bologna was the only city which possessed proper "throwing" mills, or the machinery requisite for twisting

and preparing silken fibres for the weaver. Thousands of people were employed at Florence and Genoa about

the same time in the silk manufacture. And at Venice it was held in such high esteem, that the business of a

It was long before the use of silk became general in England. "Silk," said an old writer, "does not

immediately come hither from the Worm that spins and makes it, but passes many a Climate, travels many a

Desert, employs many a Hand, loads many a Camel, and freights many a Ship before it arrives here; and

when at last it comes, it is in return for other manufactures, or in exchange for our money."[2] It is said that

the first pair of silk stockings was brought into England from Spain, and presented to Henry VIII. He had

before worn hose of cloth. In the third year of Queen Elizabeth's reign, her tiring woman, Mrs. Montagu,

presented her with a pair of black silk stockings as a New Year's gift; whereupon her Majesty asked if she

could have any more, in which case she would wear no more cloth stockings. When James VI. of Scotland

received the ambassadors sent to congratulate him upon his accession to the throne of Great Britain, he asked

one of his lords to lend him his pair of silken hose, that he "might not appear a scrub before strangers." From

these circumstances it will be observed how rare the wearing of silk was in England.

Shortly after becoming king, James I. endeavoured to establish the silk manufacture in England, as had

already been successfully done in France. He gave every encouragement to the breeding of silkworms. He

sent circular letters to all the counties of England, strongly recommending the inhabitants to plant mulberry

trees. The trees were planted in many places, but the leaves did not ripen in sufficient time for the sustenance

The same attempt was made at Inneshannon, near Bandon, in Ireland, by the Hugnenot refugees, but proved

abortive. The climate proved too cold or damp for the rearing of silkworms with advantage. All that remains

is "The Mulberry Field," which still retains its name. Nevertheless the Huguenots successfully established the

Down to the beginning of last century, the Italians were the principal producers of organzine or thrown silk;

and for a long time they succeeded in keeping their art a secret. Although the silk manufacture, as we have

seen, was introduced into this country by the Huguenot artizans, the price of thrown silk was so great that it

interfered very considerably with its progress. Organzine was principally made within the dominions of

Savoy, by means of a large and curious engine, the like of which did not exist elsewhere. The Italians, by the

most severe laws, long preserved the mystery of the invention. The punishment prescribed by one of their

laws to be inflicted upon anyone who discovered the secret, or attempted to carry it out of the Sardinian

dominions, was death, with the forfeiture of all the goods the delinquent possessed; and the culprit was "to be

afterwards painted on the outside of the prison walls, hanging to the gallows by one foot, with an inscription

denoting the name and crime of the person, there to be continued for a perpetual mark of infamy."[3]

Nevertheless, a bold and ingenious man was found ready to brave all this danger in the endeavour to discover

the secret. It may be remembered with what courage and determination the founder of the Foley family

introduced the manufacture of nails into England. He went into the Danemora mine district, near Upsala in

Sweden, fiddling his way among the miners; and after making two voyages, he at last wrested from them the

secret of making nails, and introduced the new industry into the Staffordshire district.[4] The courage of John

Lombe, who introduced the thrownsilk industry into England, was equally notable. He was a native of

Norwich. Playfair, in his 'Family Antiquity' (vii. 312), says his name "may have been taken from the French

Lolme, or de Lolme," as there were many persons of French and Flemish origin settled at Norwich towards

the close of the sixteenth century; but there is no further information as to his special origin.

John Lombe's father, Henry Lombe, was a worsted weaver, and was twice married. By his first wife he had

two sons, Thomas and Henry; and by his second, he had also two sons, Benjamin and John. At his death in

1695, he left his two brothers his "supervisors," or trustees, and directed them to educate his children in due

time to some useful trade. Thomas, the eldest son, went to London. He was apprenticed to a trade, and

succeeded in business, as we find him Sheriff of London and Middlesex in 1727, when in his fortysecond

year. He was also knighted in the same year, most probably on the accession of George II. to the throne.

John, the youngest son of the family, and halfbrother of Thomas, was put an apprentice to a trade. In 1702,

we find him at Derby, working as a mechanic with one Mr. Crotchet. This unfortunate gentleman started a

small silkmill at Derby, with the object of participating in the profits derived from the manufacture.

"The wear of silks," says Hutton, in his 'History of Derby,' "was the taste of the ladies, and the British

merchant was obliged to apply to the Italian with ready money for the article at an exorbitant price." Crotchet

did not succeed in his undertaking. "Three engines were found necessary for the process: he had but one. An

untoward trade is a dreadful sink for money; and an imprudent tradesman is still more dreadfuL. We often see

instances where a fortune would last a man much longer if he lived upon his capital, than if he sent it into

John Lombe, who had been a mechanic in Crotchet's silk mill, lost his situation accordingly. But he seems to

have been possessed by an intense desire to ascertain the Italian method of silkthrowing. He could not learn

it in England. There was no other method but going to Italy, getting into a silk mill, and learning the secret of

the Italian art. He was a good mechanic and a clever draughtsman, besides being intelligent and fearless.

His halfbrother Thomas, however, was doing well in London, and was willing to help him with the requisite

means. Accordingly, John set out for Italy, not long after the failure of Crotchet.

John Lombe succeeded in getting employment in a silk mill in Piedmont, where the art of silkthrowing was

kept a secret. He was employed as a mechanic, and had thus an opportunity, in course of time, of becoming

familiar with the operation of the engine. Hutton says that he bribed the workmen; but this would have been a

dangerous step, and would probably have led to his expulsion, if not to his execution. Hutton had a great

detestation of the first silk factory at Derby, where he was employed when a boy; and everything that he says

about it must be taken cum grano salis. When the subject of renewing the patent was before Parliament in

1731, Mr. Perry, who supported the petition of Sir Thomas Lombe, said that "the art had been kept so secret

in Piedmont, that no other nation could ever yet come at the invention, and that Sir Thomas and his brother

resolved to make an attempt for the bringing of this invention into their own country. They knew that there

would be great difficulty and danger in the undertaking, because the king of Sardinia had made it death for

any man to discover this invention, or attempt to carry it out of his dominions. The petitioner's brother,

however, resolved to venture his person for the benefit and advantage of his native country, and Sir Thomas

was resolved to venture his money, and to furnish his brother with whatever sums should be necessary for

executing so bold and so generous a design. His brother went accordingly over to Italy; and after a long stay

and a great expense in that country, he found means to see this engine so often, and to pry into the nature of it

so narrowly, that he made himself master of the whole invention and of all the different parts and motions

John Lombe was absent from England for several years. While occupied with his investigations and making

his drawings, it is said that it began to be rumoured that the Englishman was prying into the secret of the silk

mill, and that he had to fly for his life. However this may be, he got on board an English ship, and returned to

England in safety. He brought two Italian workmen with him, accustomed to the secrets of the silk trade. He

arrived in London in 1716, when, after conferring with his brother, a specification was prepared and a patent

for the organzining of raw silk was taken out in 1718. The patent was granted for fourteen years.

In the meantime, John Lombe arranged with the Corporation of the town of Derby for taking a lease of the

island or swamp on the river Derwent, at a ground rental of 8L. a year. The island, which was well situated

for waterpower, was 500 feet long and 52 feet wide. Arrangements were at once made for erecting a silk

mill thereon, the first large factory in England. It was constructed entirely at the expense of his brother

Thomas. While the building was in progress, John Lombe hired various rooms in Derby, and particularly the

Town Hall, where he erected temporary engines turned by hand, and gave employment to a large number of

At length, after about three years' labour, the great silk mill was completed. It was founded upon huge piles of

oak, from 16 to 20 feet long, driven into the swamp close to each other by an engine made for the purpose.

The building was five stories high, contained eight large apartments, and had no fewer than 468 windows.

The Lombes must have had great confidence in their speculation, as the building and the great engine for

making the organzine silk, together with the other fittings, cost them about 30,000L.

One effect of the working of the mill was greatly to reduce the price of the thrownsilk, and to bring it below

the cost of the Italian production. The King of Sardinia, having heard of the success of the Lombe's

undertaking, prohibited the exportation of Piedmontese raw silk, which interrupted the course of their

And now comes the tragic part of the story, for which Mr. Hutton, the author of the 'History of Derby,' is

responsible. As he worked in the silk mill when a boy, from 1730 to 1737, he doubtless heard it from the

millhands, and there may be some truth in it, though mixed with a little romance. It is this: Hutton says of

John Lombe, that he "had not pursued this lucrative commerce more than three or four years when the

Italians, who felt the effects from their want of trade, determined his destruction, and hoped that that of his

works would follow. An artful woman came over in the character of a friend, associated with the parties, and

assisted in the business. She attempted to gain both the Italian workmen, and succeeded with one. By these

two slow poison was supposed, and perhaps justly, to have been administered to John Lombe, who lingered

two or three years in agony, and departed. The Italian ran away to his own country; and Madam was

interrogated, but nothing transpired, except what strengthened suspicion." A strange story, if true.

Of the funeral, Hutton says: "John Lombe's was the most superb ever known in Derby. A man of

peaceable deportment, who had brought a beneficial manufactory into the place, employed the poor, and at

advanced wages, could not fail meeting with respect, and his melancholy end with pity. Exclusive of the

gentlemen who attended, all the people concerned in the works were invited. The procession marched in

pairs, and extended the length of Full Street, the marketplace, and Irongate; so that when the corpse

entered All Saints, at St. Mary's Gate, the last couple left the house of the deceased, at the corner of Silkmill

Thus John Lombe died and was buried at the early age of twentynine; and Thomas, the capitalist, continued

the owner of the Derby silk mill. Hutton erroneously states that William succeeded, and that he shot himself.

The Lombes had no brother of the name of William, and this part of Hutton's story is a romance.

The affairs of the Derby silk mill went on prosperously. Enough thrown silk was manufactured to supply the

trade, and the weaving of silk became a thriving business. Indeed, English silk began to have a European

reputation. In olden times it was said that "the stranger buys of the Englishman the case of the fox for a groat,

and sells him the tail again for a shilling." But now the matter was reversed, and the saying was, "The

Englishman buys silk of the stranger for twenty marks, and sells him the same again for one hundred

But the patent was about to expire. It had been granted for only fourteen years; and a long time had elapsed

before the engine could be put in operation, and the organzine manufactured. It was the only engine in the

kingdom. Joshua Gee, writing in 1731, says: "As we have but one Water Engine in the kingdom for throwing

silk, if that should be destroyed by fire or any other accident, it would make the continuance of throwing fine

silk very precarious; and it is very much to be doubted whether all the men now living in the kingdom could

make another." Gee accordingly recommended that three or four more should be erected at the public

The patent expired in 1732. The year before, Sir Thomas Lombe, who had been by this time knighted,

applied to Parliament for a prolongation of the patent. The reasons for his appeal were principally these: that

before he could provide for the full supply of other silk proper for his purpose (the Italians having prohibited

the exportation of raw silk), and before he could alter his engine, train up a sufficient number of workpeople,

and bring the manufacture to perfection, almost all the fourteen years of his patent right would have expired.

"Therefore," the petition to Parliament concluded, "as he has not hitherto received the intended benefit of the

aforesaid patent, and in consideration of the extraordinary nature of this undertaking, the very great expense,

hazard, and difficulty he has undergone, as well as the advantage he has thereby procured to the nation at his

own expense, the said Sir Thomas Lombe humbly hopes that Parliament will grant him a further term for the

sole making and using his engines, or such other recompense as in their wisdom shall seem meet."[6]

The petition was referred to a Committee. After consideration, they recommended the House of Commons to

grant a further term of years to Sir Thomas Lombe. The advisers of the King, however, thought it better that

the patent should not be renewed, but that the trade in silk should be thrown free to all. Accordingly the

Chancellor of the Exchequer acquainted the House (14th March, 1731) that "His Majesty having been

informed of the case of Sir Thomas Lombe, with respect to his engine for making organzine silk, had

commanded him to acquaint this House, that His Majesty recommended to their consideration the making

such provision for a recompense to Sir Thomas Lombe as they shall think proper."

The result was, that the sum of 14,000L. was voted and paid to Sir Thomas Lombe as "a reward for his

eminent services done to the nation, in discovering with the greatest hazard and difficulty the capital Italian

engines, and introducing and bringing the same to full perfection in this kingdom, at his own great

expense."[7] The trade was accordingly thrown open. Silk mills were erected at Stockport and elsewhere;

Hutton says that divers additional mills were erected in Derby; and a large and thriving trade was established.

In 1850, the number employed in the silk manufacture exceeded a million persons. The old mill has recently

become disused. Although supported by strong wooden supports, it showed signs of falling; and it was

[1] "This was equally the case with two other trades; those of glassmaker and druggist, which brought no

contamination upon nobility in Venice. In a country where wealth was concentrated in the hands of the

powerful, it was no doubt highly judicious thus to encourage its employment for objects of public advantage.

A feeling, more or less powerful, has always existed in the minds of the highborn, against the employment

of their time and wealth to purposes of commerce or manufactures. All trades, save only that of war, seem to

have been held by them as in some sort degrading, and but little comporting with the dignity of aristocratic

[3] A Brief State of the Case relating to the Machine erected at Derby for making Italian Organzine Silk,

which was discovered and brought into England with the utmost difficulty and hazard, and at the Sole

[6] The petition sets forth the merits of the machine at Derby for making Italian organzine silk"a

manufacture made out of fine raw silk, by reducing it to a hard twisted fine and even thread. This silk makes

the warp, and is absolutely necessary to mix with and cover the Turkey and other coarser silks thrown here,

which are used for Shute,so that, without a constant supply of this fine Italian organzine silk, very little of

the said Turkey or other silks could be used, nor could the silk weaving trade be carried on in England. This

Italian organzine (or thrown) silk has in all times past been bought with our money, ready made (or worked)

in Italy, for want of the art of making it here. Whereas now, by making it ourselves out of fine Italian raw

silk, the nation saves near onethird part; and by what we make out of fine China raw silk, above onehalf of

the price we pay for it ready worked in Italy. The machine at Derby contains 97,746 wheels, movements, and

individual parts (which work day and night), all which receive their motion from one large waterwheel, are

governed by one regulator, and it employs about 300 persons to attend and supply it with work." In Bees

Cyclopaedia (art. 'Silk Manufacture') there is a full description of the Piedmont throwing machine introduced

[7] Sir Thomas Lombe died in 1738. He had two daughters. The first, Hannah, was married to Sir Robert

Notts; the second, Mary Turner, was married to James, 7th Earl of Lauderdale. In his will, he "recommends

his wife, at the conclusion of the Darby concern," to distribute among his "principal servants or managers five

"The beginning of civilization is the discovery of some useful arts, by which men acquire property, comforts,

or luxuries. The necessity or desire of preserving them leads to laws and social institutions... In reality, the

origin as well as the progress and improvement of civil society is founded on mechanical and chemical

At the middle of last century, Scotland was a very poor country. It consisted mostly of mountain and

moorland; and the little arable land it contained was badly cultivated. Agriculture was almost a lost art.

"Except in a few instances," says a writer in the 'Farmers' Magazine' of 1803, "Scotland was little better than

a barren waste." Cattle could with difficulty be kept alive; and the people in some parts of the country were

often on the brink of starvation. The people were hopeless, miserable, and without spirit, like the Irish in their

very worst times. After the wreck of the Darien expedition, there seemed to be neither skill, enterprise, nor

money left in the country. What resources it contained were altogether undeveloped. There was little

communication between one place and another, and such roads as existed were for the greater part of the year

There were various opinions as to the causes of this frightful state of things. Some thought it was the Union

between England and Scotland; and Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, "The Patriot," as he was called, urged its

Repeal. In one of his publications, he endeavoured to show that about onesixth of the population of Scotland

was in a state of beggary two hundred thousand vagabonds begging from door to door, or robbing and

plundering people as poor as themselves.[1] Fletcher was accordingly as great a repealer as Daniel O'Connell

in after times. But he could not get the people to combine. There were others who held a different opinion.

They thought that something might be done by the people themselves to extricate the country from its

It still possessed some important elements of prosperity. The inhabitants of Scotland, though poor, were

strong and able to work. The land, though cold and sterile, was capable of cultivation.

Accordingly, about the middle of last century, some important steps were taken to improve the general

condition of things. A few publicspirited landowners led the way, and formed themselves into a society for

carrying out improvements in agriculture. They granted long leases of farms as a stimulus to the most skilled

and industrious, and found it to their interest to give the farmer a more permanent interest in his

improvements than he had before enjoyed. Thus stimulated and encouraged, farming made rapid progress,

especially in the Lothians; and the example spread into other districts. Banks were established for the storage

of capital. Roads were improved, and communications increased between one part of the country and another.

Hence trade and commerce arose, by reason of the facilities afforded for the interchange of traffic. The

people, being fairly educated by the parish schools, were able to take advantage of these improvements. Sloth

and idleness gradually disappeared, before the energy, activity, and industry which were called into life by

At the same time, active and powerful minds were occupied in extending the domain of knowledge. Black

and Robison, of Glasgow, were the precursors of James Watt, whose invention of the condensing

steamengine was yet to produce a revolution in industrial operations, the like of which had never before

been known. Watt had hit upon his great idea while experimenting with an old Newcomen model which

belonged to the University of Glasgow. He was invited by Mr. Roebuck of Kinneil to make a working

steamengine for the purpose of pumping water from the coalpits at Boroughstoness; but his progress was

stopped by want of capital, as well as by want of experience. It was not until the brave and generous Matthew

Boulton of Birmingham took up the machine, and backed Watt with his capital and his spirit, that Watt's

enterprise had the remotest chance of success. Even after about twelve years' effort, the condensing

steamengine was only beginning, though halfheartedly, to be taken up and employed by colliery

proprietors and cotton manufacturers. In developing its powers, and extending its uses, the great merits of

William Murdock can never be forgotten. Watt stands first in its history, as the inventor; Boulton second, as

William Murdock was born on the 21st of August, 1754, at Bellow Mill, in the parish of Auchinleck,

Ayrshire. His father, John, was a miller and millwright, as well as a farmer. His mother's maiden name was

Bruce, and she used to boast of being descended from Robert Bruce, the deliverer of Scotland. The

Murdocks, or Murdochsfor the name was spelt in either waywere numerous in the neighbourhood, and

they were nearly all related to each other. They are supposed to have originally come into the district from

Flanders, between which country and Scotland a considerable intercourse existed in the middle ages. Some of

the Murdocks took a leading part in the construction of the abbeys and cathedrals of the North;[2] others were

One of the best known members of the family was John Murdock, the poet Burns' first teacher. Burns went to

his school at Alloway Mill, when he was six years old. There he learnt to read and write. When Murdock

afterwards set up a school at Ayr, Burns, who was then fifteen, went to board with him. In a letter to a

correspondent, Murdock said: "In 1773, Robert Burns came to board and lodge with me, for the purpose of

revising his English grammar, that he might be better qualified to instruct his brothers and sisters at home. He

was now with me day and night, in school, at all meals, and in all my walks." The pupil even shared the

teacher's bed at night. Murdock lent the boy books, and helped the cultivation of his mind in many ways.

Burns soon revised his English grammar, and learnt French, as well as a little Latin. Some time after,

Murdock removed to London, and had the honour of teaching Talleyrand English during his residence as an

emigrant in this country. He continued to have the greatest respect for his former pupil, whose poetry

It may be mentioned that Bellow Mill is situated on the Bellow Water, near where it joins the river Lugar.

That was the scene of William Murdock's boyhood. When a boy, he herded his father's cows along the banks

of the Bellow; and as there were then no hedges, it was necessary to have some one to watch the cattle while

grazing. The spot is still pointed out where the boy, in the intervals of his herding, hewed a square

compartment out of the rock by the water side, and there burnt the splint coal found on the top of the Black

Band ironstone. That was one of the undeveloped industries of Scotland; for the Scotch iron trade did not

arrive at any considerable importance until about a century later.[3] The little cavern in which Murdock burnt

the splint coal was provided with a fireplace and vent, all complete. It is possible that he may have there

Murdock is also said to have made a wooden horse, worked by mechanical power, which was the wonder of

the district. On this mechanical horse he rode to the village of Cumnock, about two miles distant. His father's

name is, however, associated with his own in the production of this machine. Old John Murdock had a

reputation for intelligence and skill of no ordinary kind. When at Carron ironworks, in 1760, he had a pinton

cast after a pattern which he had prepared. This is said to have been the first piece of irontoothed gearing

ever used in mill work. When I last saw it, the pinton was placed on the lawn in front of William Murdock's

The young man helped his father in many ways. He worked in the mill, worked on the farm, and assisted in

the preparation of mill machinery. In this way he obtained a considerable amount of general technical

knowledge. He even designed and constructed bridges. He was employed to build a bridge over the river

Nith, near Dumfries, and it stands there to this day, a solid and handsome structure. But he had an ambition to

be something more than a country mason. He had heard a great deal about the inventions of James Watt; and

he determined to try whether he could not get "a job" at the famous manufactory at Soho. He accordingly left

his native place in the year 1777, in the twentythird year of his age; and migrated southward. He left plenty

of Murdocks behind him. There was a famous staff in the family, originally owned by William Murdock's

grandfather, which bore the following inscription: "This staff I leave in pedigree to the oldest Murdock after

me, in the parish of Auchenleck, 1745." This staff was lately held by Jean Murdock, daughter of the late

When William arrived at Soho in 1777 he called at the works to ask for employment. Watt was then in

Cornwall, looking after his pumping engines; but he saw Boulton, who was usually accessible to callers of

every rank. In answer to Murdock's enquiry whether he could have a job, Boulton replied that work was very

slack with them, and that every place was filled up. During the brief conversation that took place, the blate

young Scotchman, like most country lads in the presence of strangers, had some difficulty in knowing what

to do with his hands, and unconsciously kept twirling his hat with them. Boulton's attention was attracted to

the twirling hat, which seemed to be of a peculiar make. It was not a felt hat, nor a cloth hat, nor a glazed hat:

but it seemed to be painted, and composed of some unusual material. "That seems to be a curious sort of hat,"

said Boulton, looking at it more closely; "what is it made of?" "Timmer, sir," said Murdock, modestly.

"Timmer? Do you mean to say that it is made of wood?" "'Deed it is, sir." "And pray how was it made?" "I

Boulton looked at the young man again. He had risen a hundred degrees in his estimation. William was a

goodlooking fellowtall, strong, and handsomewith an open intelligent countenance. Besides, he had

been able to turn a hat for himself with a lathe of his own construction. This, of itself, was a sufficient proof

that he was a mechanic of no mean skill. "Well!" said Boulton, at last, "I will enquire at the works, and see if

Such was the beginning of William Murdock's connection with the firm of Boulton and Watt. When he called

again he was put upon a trial job, and then, as he was found satisfactory, he was engaged for two years at 15s.

a week when at home, 17s. when in the country, and 18s. when in London. Boulton's engagement of

Murdock was amply justified by the result. Beginning as an ordinary mechanic, he applied himself diligently

and conscientiously to his work, and gradually became trusted. More responsible duties were confided to

him, and he strove to perform them to the best of his power. His industry, skilfulness, and steady sobriety,

soon marked him for promotion, and he rose from grade to grade until he became Boulton and Watt's most

trusted coworker and adviser in all their mechanical undertakings of importance.

Watt himself had little confidence in Scotchmen as mechanics. He told Sir Waiter Scott that though many of

them sought employment at his works, he could never get any of them to become firstrate workmen. They

might be valuable as clerks and bookkeepers, but they had an insuperable aversion to toiling long at any

point of mechanism, so as to earn the highest wages paid to the workmen.[4] The reason no doubt was, that

the workingpeople of Scotland were then only in course of education as practical mechanics; and now that

they have had a century's discipline of work and technical training, the result is altogether different, as the

engineshops and shipbuildingyards of the Clyde abundantly prove. Mechanical power and technical ability

When Boulton engaged Murdock, as we have said, Watt was absent in Cornwall, looking after the

pumpingengines which had been erected at several of the mines throughout that county. The partnership had

only been in existence for three years, and Watt was still struggling with the difficulties which he had to

surmount in getting the steam engine into practical use. His health was bad, and he was oppressed with

frightful headaches. He was not the man to fight the selfishness of the Cornish adventurers. "A little more of

this hurrying and vexation," he said, "will knock me up altogether." Boulton went to his help occasionally,

and gave him hope and courage. And at length William Murdock, after he had acquired sufficient knowledge

of the business, was able to undertake the principal management of the engines in Cornwall.

We find that in 1779, when he was only twentyfive years old, he was placed in this important position.

When he went into Cornwall, he gave himself no rest until he had conquered the defects of the engines, and

He devoted himself to his duties with a zeal and ability that completely won Watt's heart. When he had an

important job in hand, he could scarcely sleep. One night at his lodgings at Redruth, the people were

disturbed by a strange noise in his room. Several heavy blows were heard upon the floor. They started from

their beds, rushed to Murdock's room, and found him standing in his shirt, heaving at the bedpost in his sleep,

Murdock became a most popular man with the mine owners. He also became friendly with the Cornish

workmen and engineers. Indeed, he fought his way to their affections. One day, some halfdozen of the

mining captains came into his engineroom at Chacewater, and began to bully him. This he could not stand.

He stript, selected the biggest, and put himself into a fighting attitude. They set to, and in a few minutes

Murdock's powerful bones and muscles enabled him to achieve the victory. The other men, who had looked

on fairly, without interfering, seeing the temper and vigour of the man they had bullied, made overtures of

reconciliation. William was quite willing to be friendly. Accordingly they shook hands all round, and parted

the best of friends. It is also said that Murdock afterwards fought a duel with Captain Trevethick, because of a

quarrel between Watt and the mining engineer, in which Murdock conceived his master to have been unfairly

The uses of Watt's steamengine began to be recognised as available for manufacturing purposes. It was then

found necessary to invent some method by which continuous rotary motion should be secured, so as to turn

round the moving machinery of mills. With this object Watt had invented his original wheelengine. But no

steps were taken to introduce it into practical use. At length he prepared a model, in which he made use of a

crank connected with the working beam of the engine, so as to produce the necessary rotary motion.

There was no originality in this application. The crank was one of the most common of mechanical

appliances. It was in daily use in every spinning wheel, and in every turner's and knifegrinder's footlathe.

Watt did not take out a patent for the crank, not believing it to be patentable. But another person did so,

thereby anticipating Watt in the application of the crank for producing rotary motion. He had therefore to

employ some other method, and in the new contrivance he had the valuable help of William Murdock. Watt

devised five different methods of securing rotary motion without using the crank, but eventually he adopted

the "Sunandplanet motion," the invention of Murdock. This had the singular property of going twice round

for every stroke of the engine, and might be made to go round much oftener without additional machinery.

The invention was patented in February, 1782, five Years after Murdock had entered the service of Boulton

Murdock continued for many years busily occupied in superintending the Cornish steamengines. We find

him described by his employers as "flying from mine to mine," putting the engines to rights. If anything went

wrong, he was immediately sent for. He was active, quicksighted, shrewd, sober, and thoroughly

trustworthy. Down to the year 1780, his wages were only a pound a week; but Boulton made him a present of

ten guineas, to which the owners of the United Mines added another ten, in acknowledgment of the admirable

manner in which he bad erected their new engine, the chairman of the company declaring that he was "the

most obliging and industrious workman he had ever known." That he secured the admiration of the Cornish

engineers may be obvious from the fact of Mr. Boaze having invited him to join in an engineering

partnership; but Murdock remained loyal to the Birmingham firm, and in due time he had his reward.

He continued to be the "right hand man" of the concern in Cornwall. Boulton wrote to Watt, towards the end

of 1782: "Murdock hath been indefatigable ever since he began. He has scarcely been in bed or taken

necessary food. After slaving night and day on Thursday and Friday, a letter came from Wheal Virgin that he

must go instantly to set their engine to work, or they would let out the fire. He went and set the engine to

work; it worked well for the five or six hours he remained. He left it, and returned to the Consolidated Mines

about eleven at night, and was employed about the engines till four this morning, and then went to bed. I

found him at ten this morning in Poldice Cistern, seeking for pins and castors that had jumped out, when I

On one occasion, when an engine superintended by Murdock stopped through some accident, the water rose

in the mine, and the workmen were "drowned out." Upon this occurring, the miners went "roaring at him" for

throwing them out of work, and threatened to tear him to pieces. Nothing daunted, he went through the midst

When he came out of the enginehouse, the miners cheered him vociferously and insisted upon carrying him

Steam was now asserting its power everywhere. It was pumping water from the mines in Cornwall and

driving the mills of the manufacturers in Lancashire. Speculative mechanics began to consider whether it

might not be employed as a means of land locomotion. The comprehensive mind of Sir Isaac Newton had

long before, in his 'Explanation of the Newtonian Philosophy,' thrown out the idea of employing steam for

this purpose; but no practical experiment was made. Benjamin Franklin, while agent in London for the United

Provinces of America, had a correspondence with Matthew Boulton, of Birmingham, and Dr. Darwin, of

Lichfield, on the same subject. Boulton sent a model of a fireengine to London for Franklin's inspection; but

Franklin was too much occupied at the time by grave political questions to pursue the subject further.

Erasmus Darwin's speculative mind was inflamed by the idea of a "fiery chariot," and he urged his friend

Other minds were at work. Watt, when only twentythree years old, at the instigation of his friend Robison,

made a model locomotive, provided with two cylinders of tin plate; but the project was laid aside, and was

never again taken up by the inventor. Yet, in his patent of 1784, Watt included an arrangement by means of

which steampower might be employed for the purposes of locomotion. But no further model of the

Meanwhile, Cugnot, of Paris, had already made a road engine worked by steam power. It was first tried at the

Arsenal in 1769; and, being set in motion, it ran against a stone wall in its way and threw it down. The engine

was afterwards tried in the streets of Paris. In one of the experiments it fell over with a crash, and was

thenceforward locked up in the Arsenal to prevent its doing further mischief. This first locomotive is now to

Murdock had doubtless heard of Watt's original speculations, and proceeded, while at Redruth, during his

leisure hours, to construct a model locomotive after a design of his own. This model was of small

dimensions, standing little more than a foot and a half high, though it was sufficiently large to demonstrate

the soundness of the principle on which it was constructed. It was supported on three wheels, and carried a

small copper boiler, heated by a spirit lamp, with a flue passing obliquely through it. The cylinder, of 3/4 inch

diameter and 2inch stroke, was fixed in the top of the boiler, the pistonrod being connected with the

vibratory beam attached to the connectingrod which worked the crank of the drivingwheel. This little

engine worked by the expansive force of steam only, which was discharged into the atmosphere after it had

Mr. Murdock's son, while living at Handsworth, informed the present writer that this model was invented and

constructed in 1781; but, after perusing the correspondence of Boulton and Watt, we infer that it was not

ready for trial until 1784. The first experiment was made in Murdock's own house at Redruth, when the little

engine successfully hauled a model waggon round the room,the single wheel, placed in front of the engine

Another experiment was made out of doors, on which occasion, small though the engine was, it fairly outran

the speed of its inventor. One night, after returning from his duties at the mine at Redruth, Murdock went

with his model locomotive to the avenue leading to the church, about a mile from the town. The walk was

narrow, straight, and level. Having lit the lamp, the water soon boiled, and off started the engine with the

inventor after it. Shortly after he heard distant shouts of terror. It was too dark to perceive objects, but he

found, on following up the machine, that the cries had proceeded from the worthy vicar, who, while going

along the walk, had met the hissing and fiery little monster, which he declared he took to be the Evil One in

When Watt was informed of Murdock's experiments, he feared that they might interfere with his regular

duties, and advised their discontinuance. Should Murdock still resolve to continue them, Watt urged his

partner Boulton, then in Cornwall, that, rather than lose Murdock's services, they should advance him 100L.;

and, if he succeeded within a year in making an engine capable of drawing a postchaise carrying two

passengers and the driver, at the rate of four miles an hour, that a locomotive engine business should be

established, with Murdock as a partner. The arrangement, however, never proceeded any further. Perhaps a

different attraction withdrew Murdock from his locomotive experiments. He was then paying attention to a

young lady, the daughter of Captain Painter; and in l785 he married her, and brought her home to his house in

In the following year,September, 1786Watt says, in a letter to Boulton, "I have still the same opinion

concerning the steam carriage, but, to prevent more fruitless argument about it, I have one of some size under

hand. In the meantime, I wish William could be brought to do as we do, to mind the business in hand, and let

such as Symington and Sadler throw away their time and money in hunting shadows." In a subsequent letter

Watt expressed his gratification at finding "that William applies to his business." From that time forward,

Murdock as well as Watt, dropped all further speculation on the subject, and left it to others to work out the

problem of the locomotive engine. Murdock's model remained but a curious toy, which he took pleasure in

exhibiting to his intimate friends; and, though he long continued to speculate about road locomotion, and was

persuaded of its practicability, he abstained from embodying his ideas of the necessary engine in any

Murdock nevertheless continued inventing, for the man who is given to invent, and who possesses the gift of

insight, cannot rest. He lived in the midst of inventors. Watt and Boulton were constantly suggesting new

things, and Murdock became possessed by the same spirit. In 1791 he took out his first patent. It was for a

method of preserving ships' bottoms from foulness by the use of a certain kind of chemical paint. Mr.

Murdock's grandson informs us that it was recently repatented and was the cause of a lawsuit, and that

Hislop's patent for revivifying gaslime would have been an infringement, if it had not expired.

Murdock is still better known by his invention of gas for lighting purposes. Several independent inquirers

into the constituents of Newcastle coal had arrived at the conclusion that nearly onethird of the substance

was driven off in vapour by the application of heat, and that the vapour so driven off was inflammable. But

no suggestion had been made to apply this vapour for lighting purposes until Murdock took the matter in

hand. Mr. M. S. Pearse has sent us the following interesting reminiscence: "Some time since, when in the

West of Cornwall, I was anxious to find out whether any one remembered Murdock. I discovered one of the

most respectable and intelligent men in Camborne, Mr. William Symons, who not only distinctly

remembered Murdock, but had actually been present on one of the first occasions when gas was used.

Murdock, he says, was very fond of children, and not unfrequently took them into his workshop to show

them what he was doing. Hence it happened that on one occasion this gentleman, then a boy of seven or

eight, was standing outside Murdock's door with some other boys, trying to catch sight of some special

mystery inside, for Dr. Boaze, the chief doctor of the place, and Murdock had been busy all the afternoon.

Murdock came out, and asked my informant to run down to a shop near by for a thimble. On returning with

the thimble, the boy pretended to have lost it, and, whilst searching in every pocket, he managed to slip inside

the door of the workshop, and then produced the thimble. He found Dr. Boaze and Murdock with a kettle

filled with coal. The gas issuing from it had been burnt in a large metal case, such as was used for blasting

purposes. Now, however, they had applied a much smaller tube, and at the end of it fastened the thimble,

through the small perforations made in which they burned a continuous jet for some time."[7]

After numerous experiments, Murdock had his house in Cross Street fitted up in 1792 for being lit by gas.

The coal was subjected to heat in an iron retort, and the gas was conveyed in pipes to the offices and the

different rooms of the house, where it was burned at proper apertures or burners.[8] Portions of the gas were

also confined in portable vessels of tinned iron, from which it was burned when required, thus forming a

moveable gaslight. Murdock had a gas lantern in regular use, for the purpose of lighting himself home at

night across the moors, from the mines where he was working, to his home at Redruth. This lantern was

formed by filling a bladder with gas and fixing a jet to the mouthpiece at the bottom of a glass lantern, with

Having satisfied himself as to the superior economy of coal gas, as compared with oils and tallow, for the

purposes of artificial illumination, Murdock mentioned the subject to Mr. James Watt, jun., during a brief

visit to Soho in 1794, and urged the propriety of taking out a patent. Watt was, however, indifferent to taking

out any further patents, being still engaged in contesting with the Cornish mineowners his father's rights to

the user of the condensing steamengine. Nothing definite was done at the time. Murdock returned to

Cornwall and continued his experiments. At the end of the same year he exhibited to Mr. Phillips and others,

at the Polgooth mine, his apparatus for extracting gases from coal and other substances, showed it in use, lit

the gas which issued from the burner, and showed its "strong and beautiful light." He afterwards exhibited the

same apparatus to Tregelles and others at the Neath Abbey Company's ironworks in Glamorganshire.

Murdock returned to Soho in 1798, to take up his permanent residence in the neighbourhood. When the mine

owners heard of his intention to leave Cornwall, they combined in offering him a handsome salary provided

he would remain in the county; but his attachment to his friends at Soho would not allow him to comply with

their request. He again urged the firm of Boulton and Watt to take out a patent for the use of gas for lighting

purposes. But being still embroiled in their tedious and costly lawsuit, they were naturally averse to risk

connection with any other patent. Watt the younger, with whom Murdock communicated on the subject, was

aware that the current of gas obtained from the distillation of coal in Lord Dundonald's tarovens had been

occasionally set fire to, and also that Bishop Watson and others had burned gas from coal, after conducting it

through tubes, or after it had issued from the retort. Mr. Watt was, however, quite satisfied that Murdock was

the first person who had suggested its economical application for public and private uses.

But he was not clear, after the legal difficulties which had been raised as to his father's patent rights, that it

Mr. Murdock's suggestion, accordingly, was not acted upon. But he went on inventing in other directions. He

thenceforward devoted himself entirely to mechanical pursuits. Mr. Buckle has said of him: "The rising

sun often found him, after a night spent in incessant labour, still at the anvil or turninglathe; for with his

own hands he would make such articles as he would not intrust to unskilful ones." In 1799 he took out a

patent (No. 2340), embodying some very important inventions. First, it included the endless screw working

into a toothedwheel, for boring steamcylinders, which is still in use. Second, the casting of a steamjacket

in one cylinder, instead of being made in separate segments bolted together with caulked joints, as was

previously done. Third, the new doubleD slidevalve, by which the construction and working of the

steamengine was simplified, and the loss of steam saved, as well as the cylindrical valve for the same

purpose. And fourth, improved rotary engines. One of the latter was set to drive the machines in his private

workshop, and continued in nearly constant work and in perfect use for about thirty years.

In 1801, Murdock sent his two sons William and John to the Ayr Academy, for the benefit of Scotch

education. In the summertime they spent their vacation at Bellow Mill, which their grandfather still

continued to occupy. They fished in the river, and "caught a good many trout." The boys corresponded

regularly with their father at Birmingham. In 1804, they seem to have been in a state of great excitement

about the expected landing of the French in Scotland. The volunteers of Ayr amounted to 300 men, the

cavalry to 150, and the riflemen to 50. "The riflemen," says John, "go to the seashore every Saturday to shoot

at a target. They stand at 70 paces distant, and out of 100 shots they often put in 60 bullets!" William says,

"Great preparations are still making for the reception of the French. Several thousand of pikes are carried

through the town every week; and all the volunteers and riflemen have received orders to march at a

moment's warning." The alarm, however, passed away. At the end of 1804, the two boys received prizes;

William got one in arithmetic and another in the Rector's composition class; and John also obtained two, one

To return to the application of gas for lighting purposes. In 1801, a plan was proposed by a M. Le Blond for

lighting a part of the streets of Paris with gas. Murdock actively resumed his experiments; and on the

occasion of the Peace of Amiens in March, 1802, he made the first public exhibition of his invention. The

The sight was received with immense enthusiasm. There could now be no doubt as to the enormous

advantages of this method of producing artificial light, compared with that from oil or tallow. In the

following year the manufacture of gasmaking apparatus was added to the other branches of Boulton and

Watts' business, with which Murdock was now associated,and as much as from 4000L. to 5000L. of

capital were invested in the new works. The new method of lighting speedily became popular amongst

manufacturers, from its superior safety, cheapness, and illuminating power. The mills of Phillips and Lee of

Manchester were fitted up in 1805; and those of Burley and Kennedy, also of Manchester, and of Messrs.

Though Murdock had made the uses of gaslighting perfectly clear, it was some time before it was proposed

to light the streets by the new method. The idea was ridiculed by Sir Humphry Davy, who asked one of the

projectors if he intended to take the dome of St. Paul's for a gasometer! Sir Waiter Scott made many clever

jokes about those who proposed to "send light through the streets in pipes;" and even Wollaston, a well

known man of science, declared that they "might as well attempt to light London with a slice from the moon."

It has been so with all new projects with the steamboat, the locomotive, and the electric telegraph. As John

Wilkinson said of the first vessel of iron which he introduced, "it will be only a nine days' wonder, and

On the 25th of February, 1808, Murdock read a paper before the Royal Society "On the Application of Gas

from Coal to economical purposes." He gave a history of the origin and progress of his experiments, down to

the time when he had satisfactorily lit up the premises of Phillips and Lee at Manchester. The paper was

It concluded: "I believe I may, without presuming too much, claim both the first idea of applying, and the

first application of this gas to economical purposes."[9] The Royal Society awarded Murdock their large

In the following year a German named Wintzer, or Winsor, appeared as the promotor of a scheme for

obtaining a royal charter with extensive privileges, and applied for powers to form a jointstock company to

light part of London and Westminster with gas. Winsor claimed for his method of gas manufacture that it was

more efficacious and profitable than any then known or practised. The profits, indeed, were to be prodigious.

Winsor made an elaborate calculation in his pamphlet entitled 'The New Patriotic Imperial and National Light

and Heat Company,' from which it appeared that the net annual profits "agreeable to the official experiments"

would amount to over two hundred and twentynine millions of pounds!and that, giving over ninetenths

of that sum towards the redemption of the National Debt, there would still remain a total profit of 570L. to be

paid to the subscribers for every 5L. of deposit! Winsor took out a patent for the invention, and the company,

of which he was a member, proceeded to Parliament for an Act. Boulton and Watt petitioned against the Bill,

and James Watt, junior, gave evidence on the subject. Henry Brougham, who was the counsel for the

petitioners, made great fun of Winsor's absurd speculations,[10] and the Bill was thrown out.

In the following year the London and Westminster Chartered Gas Light and Coke Company succeeded in

obtaining their Act. They were not very successful at first. Many prejudices existed against the employment

of the new light. It was popularly supposed that the gas was carried along the pipes on fire, and that the pipes

must necessarily be intensely hot. When it was proposed to light the House of Commons with gas, the

architect insisted on the pipes being placed several inches from the walls, for fear of fire; and, after the pipes

had been fixed, the members might be seen applying their gloved hands to them to ascertain their

temperature, and afterwards expressing the greatest surprise on finding that they were as cool as the adjoining

The Gas Company was on the point of dissolution when Mr. Samuel Clegg came to their aid. Clegg had been

a pupil of Murdock's, at Soho. He knew all the arrangements which Murdock had invented. He had assisted

in fitting up the gas machinery at the mills of Phillips Lee, Manchester, as well as at Lodge's Mill, Sowerby

Bridge, near Halifax. He was afterwards employed to fix the apparatus at the Catholic College of

Stoneyhurst, in Lancashire, at the manufactory of Mr. Harris at Coventry, and at other places. In 1813 the

London and Westminster Gas Company secured the services of Mr. Clegg, and from that time forwards their

career was one of prosperity. In 1814 Westminster Bridge was first lighted with gas, and shortly after the

streets of St. Margaret's, Westminster. Crowds of people followed the lamplighter on his rounds to watch the

sudden effect of his flame applied to the invisible stream of gas which issued from the burner. The

lamplighters became so disgusted with the new light that they struck work, and Clegg himself had for a time

The advantages of the new light, however, soon became generally recognised, and gas companies were

established in most of the large towns. Glasgow was lit up by gas in 1817, and Liverpool and Dublin in the

following year. Had Murdock in the first instance taken out a patent for his invention, it could not fail to have

proved exceedingly remunerative to him; but he derived no advantage from the extended use of the new

system of lighting except the honour of having invented it.[11] He left the benefits of his invention to the

public, and returned to his labours at Soho, which more than ever completely engrossed him.

Murdock now became completely identified with the firm of Boulton Watt. He assigned to them his patent

for the slidevalve, the rotary engine, and other inventions "for a good and valuable consideration." Indeed

his able management was almost indispensable to the continued success of the Soho foundry. Mr. Nasmyth,

when visiting the works about thirty years after Murdock had taken their complete management in hand,

recalled to mind the valuable services of that truly admirable yet modest mechanic. He observed the

admirable system, which he had invented, of transmitting power from one central engine to other small

vacuum engines attached to the several machines which they were employed to work. "This vacuum

method," he says, "of transmitting power dates from the time of Papin; but it remained a dead contrivance for

"The sight which I obtained" (Mr. Nasmyth proceeds) "of the vast series of workshops of that celebrated

establishment, fitted with evidences of the presence and results of such master minds in design and execution,

and the special machine tools which I believe were chiefly to be ascribed to the admirable inventive power

and commonsense genius of William Murdock, made me feel that I was indeed on classic ground in regard

to everything connected with the construction of steamengine machinery. The interest was in no small

degree enhanced by coming every now and then upon some machine that had every historical claim to be

regarded as the prototype of many of our modern machine tools. All these had William Murdock's genius

stamped upon them, by reason of their commonsense arrangements, which showed that he was one of those

original thinkers who had the courage to break away from the trammels of traditional methods, and take short

We have another recollection of William Murdock, from one who knew him when a boy. This is the

venerable Charles Manby, F.R.S., still honorary secretary of the Institute of Civil Engineers. He says (writing

to us in September 1883), "I see from the public prints that you have been presiding at a meeting intended to

do honour to the memory of William Murdocka most worthy man and an old friend of mine. When he

found me working the first slide valve ever introduced into an enginebuilding establishment at Horsley, he

patted me on the head, and said to my father, 'Neighbour Manby, this is not the way to bring up a good

workman merely turning a handle, without any shoulder work.' He evidently did not anticipate any great

results from my engineering education. But we all know what machine tools are doing now,and where

Watt withdrew from the firm in 1800, on the expiry of his patent for the condensing steamengine; but

Boulton continued until the year 1809, when he died full of years and honours. Watt lived on until 1819. The

last part of his life was the happiest. During the time that he was in the throes of his invention, he was very

miserable, weighed down with dyspepsia and sick headaches. But after his patent had expired, he was able to

retire with a moderate fortune, and began to enjoy life. Before, he had "cursed his inventions," now he could

bless them. He was able to survey them, and find out what was right and what was wrong. He used his head

and his hands in his private workshop, and found many means of employing both pleasantly. Murdock

continued to be his fast friend, and they spent many agreeable hours together. They made experiments and

devised improvements in machines. Watt wished to make things more simple. He said to Murdock, "it is a

great thing to know what to do without. We must have a book of blotsthings to be scratched out." One of

the most interesting schemes of Watt towards the end of his life was the contrivance of a sculpturemaking

machine; and he proceeded so far with it as to to able to present copies of busts to his friends as "the

productions of a young artist just entering his eightythird year." The machine, however, remained

unfinished at his death, and the remarkable fact is that it was Watt's only unfinished work.

The principle of the machine was to carry a guidepoint at one side over the bust or altorelievo to be copied,

and at the other side to carry a corresponding cuttingtool or drill over the alabaster, ivory, jet, or plaster of

Paris to be executed. The machine worked, as it were, with two hands, the one feeling the pattern, the other

cutting the material into the required form. Many new alterations were necessary for carrying out this

ingenious apparatus, and Murdock was always at hand to give his old friend and master his best assistance.

We have seen many original letters from Watt to Murdock, asking for counsel and help. In one of these,

written in 1808, Watt says: "I have revived an idea which, if it answers, will supersede the frame and upright

spindle of the reducing machine, but more of this when we meet. Meanwhile it will be proper to adhere to the

frame, etc., at present, until we see how the other alterations answer." In another he says: "I have done a

Cicero without any plaitsthe different segments meeting exactly. The fitting the drills into the spindle by a

taper of 1 in 6 will do. They are perfectly stiff and will not unscrew easily. Four guidepullies answer, but

there must be a pair for the other end, and to work with a single hand, for the returning part is always cut

These letters are written sometimes in the morning, sometimes at noon, sometimes at night. There was a great

deal of correspondence about "pullies," which did not seem to answer at first. "I have made the tablets," said

Watt on one occasion, "slide more easily, and can counterbalance any part of their weight which may be

necessary; but the first thing to try is the solidity of the machine, which cannot be done till the pullies are

mounted." Then again: "The bustmaking must be given up until we get a more solid frame. I have worked

two days at one and spoiled it, principally from the want of steadiness." For Watt, it must be remembered,

He then proceeded to send Murdock the drawing of a "parallel motion for the machine," to be executed by the

workmen at Soho. The truss braces and the crosses were to be executed of steel, according to the details he

enclosed. "I have warmed up," he concludes, "an old idea, and can make a machine in which the pentagraph

and the leading screw will all be contained in the beam, and the pattern and piece to be cut will remain at rest

fixed upon a lath of cast iron or stout steel." Watt is very particular in all his details: "I am sorry," he says in

one note, "to trouble you with so many things; but the alterations on this spindle and socket [he annexes a

drawing] may wait your convenience." In a further note, Watt says. "The drawing for the parallel lathe is

ready; but I have been sadly puzzled about the application of the leading screws to the cranes in the other.

I think, however, I have now got the better of the difficulties, and made it more certain, as well as more

simple, than it was. I have done an excellent head of John Hunter in hard white in shorter time than usual. I

At last Watt seems to have become satisfied: "The lathe," he says, "is very much improved, and you seem to

have given the finishing blow to the roofed frame, which appears perfectly stiff. I had some hours' intense

thinking upon the machine last night, and have made up my mind on it at last. The great difficulty was about

Watt's letters to Murdock are most particular in details, especially as to screws, nuts, and tubes, with strengths

and dimensions, always illustrated with penandink drawings. And yet all this was done merely for

mechanical amusement, and not for any personal pecuniary advantage. While Watt was making experiments

as to the proper substances to be carved and drilled, he also desired Murdock to make similar experiments.

"The nitre," he said in one note, "seems to do harm; the fluor composition seems the best and hardest. Query,

what would some calcined pipeclay do? If you will calcine some fireclay by a red heat and pound

it,about a pound,and send it to me, I shall try to make you a mould or two in Henning's manner to cast

this and the sulphur acid iron in. I have made a screwing tool for wood that seems to answer; also one of a

onetenth diameter for marble, which does very well." In another note, Watt says: "I find my drill readily

makes 2400 turns per minute, even with the large drill you sent last; if I bear lightly, a threequarter ferril

The materials to be drilled into medallions also required much consideration. "I am much obliged to you,"

said Watt, "for the balls, etc., which answer as well as can be expected. They make great progress in cutting

the crust (Ridgways) or alabaster, and also cut marble, but the harder sorts soon blunt them. At any rate,

marble does not do for the medallions, as its grain prevents its being cut smooth, and its semitransparence

hurts the effect. I think Bristol lime, or shell lime, pressed in your manner, would have a good effect. When

you are at leisure, I shall thank you for a few pieces, and if some of them are made pink or flesh colour, they

will look well. I used the ball quite perpendicular, and it cut well, as most of the cutting is sideways. I tried a

fine whirling point, but it made little progress; another with a chisel edge did almost as well as the balls, but

did not work so pleasantly. I find a triangular scraping point the best, and I think from some trials it should be

quite a sharp point. The wheel runs easier than it did, but has still too much friction. I wished to have had an

hour's consultation with you, but have been prevented by sundry matters among others by that plaguey stove,

Watt was most grateful to Murdock for his unvarying assistance. In January, 1813, when Watt was in his

seventyseventh year, he wrote to Murdock, asking him to accept a present of a lathe "I have not heard from

you," he says, "in reply to my letter about the lathe; and, presuming you are not otherwise provided, I have

bought it, and request your acceptance of it. At present, an alteration for the better is making in the oval

chuck, and a few additional chucks, rest, etc., are making to the lathe. When these are finished, I shall have it

at Billinger's until you return, or as you otherwise direct. I am going on with my drawings for a complete

The drawings were made, but the machine was never finished. "Invention," said Watt, "goes on very slowly

with me now." Four years later, he was still at work; but death put a stop to his "diminishingmachine." It is a

remarkable testimony to the skill and perseverance of a man who had already accomplished so much, that it is

almost his only unfinished work. Watt died in 1819, in the eightythird year of his age, to the great grief of

Meanwhile, the firm of Boulton and Watt continued. The sons of the two partners carried it on, with Murdock

as their Mentor. He was still full of work and inventive power. In 1802, he applied the compressed air of the

Blast Engine employed to blow the cupolas of the Soho Foundry, for the purpose of driving the lathe in the

pattern shop. It worked a small engine, with a l2inch cylinder and 18inch stroke, connected with the lathe,

the speed being regulated as required by varying the admission of the blast. This engine continued in use for

In 1803 Murdock experimented on the power of highpressure steam in propelling shot, and contrived a

steamengine with which he made many trials at Soho, thereby anticipating the apparatus contrived by Mr.

In 1810 Murdock took out a patent for boring steampipes for water, and cutting columns out of solid blocks

of stone, by means of a cylindrical crown saw. The first machine was used at Soho, and afterwards at Mr.

Rennie's Works in London, and proved quite successful. Among his other inventions were a lift worked by

compressed air, which raised and lowered the castings from the boringmill to the level of the foundry and

the canal bank. He used the same kind of power to ring the bells in his house at Sycamore Hill, and the

contrivance was afterwards adopted by Sir Walter Scott in his house at Abbotsford.

Murdock was also the inventor of the wellknown castiron cement, so extensively used in engine and

machine work. The manner in which he was led to this invention affords a striking illustration of his

quickness of observation. Finding that some ironborings and salammoniac had got accidently mixed

together in his toolchest, and rusted his sawblade nearly through, he took note of the circumstance, mixed

the articles in various proportions, and at length arrived at the famous cement, which eventually became an

Murdock's ingenuity was constantly at work, even upon matters which lay entirely outside his special

vocation. The late Sir William Fairbairn informed us that he contrived a variety of curious machines for

consolidating peat moss, finely ground and pulverised, under immense pressure, and which, when

consolidated, could be moulded into beautiful medals, armlets, and necklaces. The material took the most

Observing that fishskins might be used as an economical substitute for isinglass, he went up to London on

one occasion in order to explain to brewers the best method of preparing and using them. He occupied

handsome apartments, and, little regarding the splendour of the drawingroom, he hung the fishskins up

against the walls. His landlady caught him one day when he was about to bang up a wet cod's skin! He was

turned out at once, with all his fish. While in town on this errand, it occurred to him that a great deal of power

was wasted in treading the streets of London! He conceived the idea of using the streets and roadways as a

grand treadmill, under which the waste power might be stored up by mechanical methods and turned to

account. He had also an idea of storing up the power of the tides, and of running water, in the same way. The

late Charles Babbage, F.R.S., entertained a similar idea about using springs of Ischia or of the geysers of

Iceland as a power necessary for condensing gases, or perhaps for the storage of electricity.[12] The latter,

when perfected, will probably be the greatest invention of the next half century.

Another of Murdock's' ingenious schemes, was his proposed method of transmitting letters and packages

through a tube exhausted by an airpump. This project led to the Atmospheric Railway, the success of which,

so far as it went, was due to the practical ability of Murdock's pupil, Samuel Clegg. Although the atmospheric

railway was eventually abandoned, it is remarkable that the original idea was afterwards revived and

In 1815, while Murdock was engaged in erecting an apparatus of his own invention for heating the water for

the baths at Leamington, a ponderous castiron plate fell upon his leg above his ankle, and severely injured

him. He remained a long while at Leamington, and when it was thought safe to remove him, the Birmingham

Canal Company kindly placed their excursion boat at his disposal, and he was conveyed safely homeward. So

Although the elder Watt had to a certain extent ignored the uses of steam as applied to navigation, being too

much occupied with developing the powers of the pumping and rotary engine, the young partners, with the

stout aid of Murdock, took up the question. They supplied Fulton in 1807 with his first engine, by means of

which the Clermont made her first voyage along the Hudson river. They also supplied Fulton and Livingston

with the next two engines for the Car of Neptune and the Paragon. From that time forward, Boulton and Watt

devoted themselves to the manufacture of engines for steamboats. Up to the year 1814, marine engines had

been all applied singly in the vessel; but in this year Boulton and Watt first applied two condensing engines,

connected by cranks set at right angles on the shaft, to propel a steamer on the Clyde. Since then, nearly all

steamers are fitted with two engines. In making this important improvement, the firm were materially aided

by the mechanical genius of William Murdock, and also of Mr. Brown, then an assistant, but afterwards a

In order to carry on a set of experiments with respect to the most improved form of marine engine, Boulton

and Watt purchased the Caledonia, a Scotch boat built on the Clyde by James Wood and Co., of Port

Glasgow. The engines and boilers were taken out. The vessel was fitted with two side lever engines, and

many successive experiments were made with her down to August, 1817, at an expense of about 10,000L.

This led to a settled plan of construction, by which marine engines were greatly improved. James Watt,

junior, accompanied the Caledonia to Holland and up the Rhine. The vessel was eventually sold to the Danish

Government, and used for carrying the mails between Kiel and Copenhagen. It is, however, unnecessary here

In the midst of these repeated inventions and experiments, Murdock was becoming an old man. Yet he never

ceased to take an interest in the works at Soho. At length his faculties experienced a gradual decay, and he

died peacefully at his house at Sycamore Hill, on the l5th of November,1839, in his eightyfifth year. He was

buried near the remains of the great Boulton and Watt; and a bust by Chantrey served to perpetuate the

[2] One of the Murdocks built the cathedral at Glasgow, as well as others in Scotland. The famous school of

masonry at Antwerp sent out a number of excellent architects during the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries. One

of these, on coming into Scotland, assumed the name of Murdo. He was a Frenchman, born in Paris, as we

learn from the inscription left on Melrose Abbey, and he died while building that noble work: it is as

"John Murdo sumtyme cait was I And born in Peryse certainly, An' had in kepyng all mason wark Sanct

Andrays, the Hye Kirk o'Glasgo, Melrose and Paisley, Jedybro and Galowy. Pray to God and Mary baith, and

[3] The discovery of the Black Band Ironstone by David Mushet in 1801, and the invention of the Hot Blast

by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, will be found related in Industrial Biography, pp. 141161.

[5] This was stated to the present writer some years ago by William Murdock's son; although there is no other

[6] See Lives of Engineers (Boulton and Watt), iv. pp. 1824. Small edition, pp. 1302.

[7] Mr. Pearse's letter is dated 23rd April, 1867, but has not before been published. He adds that "others

remembered Murdock, one who was an apprentice with him, and lived with him for some timea Mr.

[8] Murdock's house still stands in Cross Street, Redruth; those still live who saw the gaspipes conveying

gas from the retort in the little yard to near the ceiling of the room, just over the table; a hole for the pipe was

made in the window frame. The old window is now replaced by a new frame."Life of Richard Trevithick,

[10] Winsor's family evidently believed in his great powers; for I am informed by Francis Galton, Esq.,

F.R.S., that there is a fantastical monument on the righthand side of the central avenue of the Kensal Green

Cemetery, about half way between the lodge and the church, which bears the following inscription:"Tomb

of Frederick Albert Winsor, son of the late Frederick Albert Winsor, originator of public Gaslighting, buried

in the Cemetery of Pere la Chaise, Paris. "At evening time it shall be light.Zachariah xiv. 7. "I am come a

light into the world, that whoever believeth in Me shall not abide in darkness.John xii. 46."

[11] Mr. Parkes, in his well known Chemical Essays (ed. 1841, p. 157), after referring to the successful

lighting up by Murdock of the manufactory of Messrs. Phillips and Lee at Manchester in 1805, "with coal gas

issuing from nearly a thousand burners," proceeds, "This grand application of the new principle satisfied the

public mind, not only of the practicability, but also of the economy of the application; and as a mark of the

high opinion they entertained of his genius and perseverance, and in order to put the question of priority of

the discovery beyond all doubt, the Council of the Royal Society in 1808 awarded to Mr. Murdock the Gold

[12] "Thus," says Mr. Charles Babbage, "in a future age, power may become the staple commodity of the

Icelanders, and of the inhabitants of other volcanic districts; and possibly the very process by which they will

procure this article of exchange for the luxuries of happier climates may, in some measure, tame the

tremendous element which occasionally devastates their provinces."Economy of Manufactures.

I published an article in 'Macmillan's Magazine' for December, 1869, under the above title. The materials

were principally obtained from William and Frederick Koenig, sons of the inventor.

Since then an elaborate life has been published at Stuttgart, under the title of "Friederich Koenig und die

Erfindung Der Schnellpresse, Ein Biographisches Denkmal. Von Theodor Goebel." The author, in sending

me a copy of the volume, refers to the article published in 'Macmillan,' and says, "I hope you will please to

accept it as a small acknowledgment of the thanks, which every German, and especially the sons of Koenig,

in whose name I send the book as well as in mine, owe to you for having bravely taken up the cause of the

much wronged inventor, their father an action all the more praiseworthy, as you had to write against the

I believe it is now generally admitted that Koenig was entitled to the merit of being the first person practically

to apply the power of steam to indefinitely multiplying the productions of the printingpress; and that no one

now attempts to deny him this honour. It is true others, who followed him, greatly improved upon his first

idea; but this was the case with Watt, Symington, Crompton, Maudslay, and many more. The true inventor is

not merely the man who registers an idea and takes a patent for it, or who compiles an invention by

borrowing the idea of another, improving upon or adding to his arrangements, but the man who constructs a

machine such as has never before been made, which executes satisfactorily all the functions it was intended

to perform. And this is what Koenig's invention did, as will be observed from the following brief summary of

Frederick Koenig was born on the 17th of April, 1774, at Eisleben, in Saxony, the birthplace also of a still

more famous person, Martin Luther. His father was a respectable peasant proprietor, described by Herr

Goebel as Anspanner. But this word has now gone out of use. In feudal times it described the farmer who was

obliged to keep draught cattle to perform service due to the landlord. The boy received a solid education at

the Gymnasium, or public school of the town. At a proper age he was bound apprentice for five years to

Breitkopf and Hartel, of Leipzig, as compositor and printer; but after serving for four and a quarter years, he

was released from his engagement because of his exceptional skill, which was an unusual occurrence.

During the later years of his apprenticeship, Koenig was permitted to attend the classes in the University,

more especially those of Ernst Platner, a physician, philosopher, and anthropologist. After that he proceeded

to the printingoffice of his uncle, Anton F. Rose, at Greifswald, an old seaport town on the Baltic, where he

remained a few years. He next went to Halle as a journeyman printer, German workmen going about from

place to place, during their wanderschaft, for the purpose of learning their business. After that, he returned to

Breitkopf and Hartel, at Leipzig, where he had first learnt his trade. During this time, having saved a little

money, he enrolled himself for a year as a regular student at the University of Leipzig.

According to Koenig's own account, he first began to devise ways and means for improving the art of

printing in the year 1802, when he was twentyeight years old. Printing large sheets of paper by hand was a

very slow as well as a very laborious process. One of the things that most occupied the young printer's mind

was how to get rid of this "horsework," for such it was, in the business of printing. He was not, however,

overburdened with means, though he devised a machine with this object. But to make a little money, he

made translations for the publishers. In 1803 Koenig returned to his native town of Eisleben, where he

entered into an arrangement with Frederick Riedel, who furnished the necessary capital for carrying on the

business of a printer and bookseller. Koenig alleges that his reason for adopting this step was to raise

sufficient money to enable him to carry out his plans for the improvement of printing.

The business, however, did not succeed, as we find him in the following year carrying on a printing trade at

Mayence. Having sold this business, he removed to Suhl in Thuringia. Here he was occupied with a

stereotyping process, suggested by what he had read about the art as perfected in England by Earl Stanhope.

He also contrived an improved press, provided with a moveable carriage, on which the types were placed,

with inking rollers, and a new mechanical method of taking off the impression by flat pressure.

Koenig brought his new machine under the notice of the leading printers in Germany, but they would not

undertake to use it. The plan seemed to them too complicated and costly. He tried to enlist men of capital in

his scheme, but they all turned a deaf ear to him. He went from town to town, but could obtain no

encouragement whatever. Besides, industrial enterprise in Germany was then in a measure paralysed by the

impending war with France, and men of capital were naturally averse to risk their money on what seemed a

Finding no sympathisers or helpers at home, Koenig next turned his attention abroad. England was then, as

now, the refuge of inventors who could not find the means of bringing out their schemes elsewhere; and to

England he wistfully turned his eyes. In the meantime, however, his inventive ability having become known,

an offer was made to him by the Russian Government to proceed to St. Petersburg and organise the State

printingoffice there. The invitation was accepted, and Koenig proceeded to St. Petersburg in the spring of

1806. But the official difficulties thrown in his way were very great, and so disgusted him, that he decided to

throw up his appointment, and try his fortune in England. He accordingly took ship for London, and arrived

there in the following November, poor in means, but rich in his great idea, then his only property.

As Koenig himself said, when giving an account of his invention: "There is on the Continent no sort of

The system of patents, as it exists in England, being either unknown, or not adopted in the Continental States,

there is no inducement for industrial enterprise; and projectors are commonly obliged to offer their

discoveries to some Government, and to so licit their encouragement. I need hardly add that scarcely ever is

an invention brought to maturity under such circumstances. The wellknown fact, that almost every invention

seeks, as it were, refuge in England, and is there brought to perfection, though the Government does not

afford any other protection to inventors beyond what is derived from the wisdom of the laws, seems to

indicate that the Continent has yet to learn from her the best manner of encouraging the mechanical arts. I had

my full share in the ordinary disappointments of Continental projectors; and after having lost in Germany and

Russia upwards of two years in fruitless applications, I at last resorted to England."[1]

After arriving in London, Koenig maintained himself with difficulty by working at his trade, for his

comparative ignorance of the English language stood in his way. But to work manually at the printer's "case,"

was not Koenig's object in coming to England. His idea of a printing machine was always uppermost in his

mind, and he lost no opportunity of bringing the subject under the notice of master printers likely to take it

up. He worked for a time in the printing office of Richard Taylor, Shoe Lane, Fleet Street, and mentioned the

matter to him. Taylor would not undertake the invention himself, but he furnished Koenig with an

introduction to Thomas Bensley, the wellknown printer of Bolt Court, Fleet Street. On the 11th of March,

1807, Bensley invited Koenig to meet him on the subject of their recent conversation about "the discovery;"

and on the 31st of the same month, the following agreement was entered into between Koenig and Bensley:

"Mr. Koenig, having discovered an entire new Method of Printing by Machinery, agrees to communicate the

that, if Mr. Bensley shall be satisfied the Invention will answer all the purposes Mr. Koenig has stated in the

Particulars he has delivered to Mr. Bensley, signed with his name, he shall enter into a legal Engagement to

purchase the Secret from Mr. Koenig, or enter into such other agreement as may be deemed mutually

beneficial to both parties; or, should Mr. Bensley wish to decline having any concern with the said Invention,

then he engages not to make any use of the Machinery, or to communicate the Secret to any person

whatsoever, until it is proved that the Invention is made use of by any one without restriction of Patent, or

other particular agreement on the part of Mr. Koenig, under the penalty of Six Thousand Pounds.

Koenig now proceeded to put his idea in execution. He prepared his plans of the new printing machine. It

seems, however, that the progress made by him was very slow. Indeed, three years passed before a working

model could be got ready, to show his idea in actual practice. In the meantime, Mr. Walter of The Times had

been seen by Bensley, and consulted on the subject of the invention. On the 9th of August, 1809, more than

two years after the date of the above agreement, Bensley writes to Koenig: "I made a point of calling upon

Mr. Walter yesterday, who, I am sorry to say, declines our proposition altogether, having (as he says) so

It may be mentioned that Koenig's original plan was confined to an improved press, in which the operation of

laying the ink on the types was to be performed by an apparatus connected with the motions of the coffin, in

such a manner as that one hand could be saved. As little could be gained in expedition by this plan, the idea

soon suggested itself of moving the press by machinery, or to reduce the several operations to one rotary

motion, to which the first mover might be applied. Whilst Koenig was in the throes of his invention, he was

joined by his friend Andrew F. Bauer, a native of Stuttgart, who possessed considerable mechanical power, in

which the inventor himself was probably somewhat deficient. At all events, these two together proceeded to

A patent was taken out, dated the 29th of March, 1810, which describes the details of the invention. The

arrangement was somewhat similar to that known as the platen machine; the printing being produced by two

flat plates, as in the common handpress. It also embodied an ingenious arrangement for inking the type.

Instead of the oldfashioned inking balls, which were beaten on the type by hand labour, several cylinders

covered with felt and leather were used, and formed part of the machine itself. Two of the cylinders revolved

in opposite directions, so as to spread the ink, which was then transferred by two other inking cylinders

alternately applied to the "forme" by the action of spiral springs. The movement of all the parts of the

"After many obstructions and delays," says Koenig himself, in describing the history of his invention, "the

first printing machine was completed exactly upon the plan which I have described in the specification of my

first patent. It was set to Work in April, 1811. The sheet (H) of the new Annual Register for 1810, 'Principal

Occurrences,' 3000 copies, was printed with it; and is, I have no doubt, the first part of a book ever printed

with a machine. The actual use of it, however, soon suggested new ideas, and led to the rendering it less

Of course! No great invention was ever completed at one effort. It would have been strange if Koenig had

been satisfied with his first attempt. It was only a beginning, and he naturally proceeded with the

improvement of his machine. It took Watt more than twenty years to elaborate his condensing steamengine;

and since his day, owing to the perfection of selfacting tools, it has been greatly improved. The power of the

Steamboat and the Locomotive also, as well as of all other inventions, have been developed by the constantly

Koenig's experiment was only a beginning, and he naturally proceeded with the improvement of his machine.

Although the platen machine of Koenig's has since been taken up a new, and perfected, it was not considered

by him sufficiently simple in its arrangements as to be adapted for common use; and he had scarcely

completed it, when he was already revolving in his mind a plan of a second machine on a new principle, with

By this time, other wellknown London printers, Messrs. Taylor and Woodfall, had joined Koenig and

Bensley in their partnership for the manufacture and sale of printing machines. The idea which now occurred

to Koenig was, to employ a cylinder instead of a flat Platen machine, for taking the impressions off the type,

and to place the sheet round the cylinder, thereby making it, as it were, part of the periphery. As early as the

year 1790, one William Nicholson had taken out a patent for a machine for printing "on paper, linen, cotton,

woollen, and other articles," by means of "blocks, forms, types, plates, and originals," which were to be

"firmly imposed upon a cylindrical surface in the same manner as common letter is imposed upon a flat

stone."[3] From the mention of "colouring cylinder," and "paperhangings, floorcloths, cottons, linens,

woollens, leather, skin, and every other flexible material," mentioned in the specification, it would appear as

if Nicholson's invention were adapted for calicoprinting and paperhangings, as well as for the printing of

books. But it was never used for any of these purposes. It contained merely the register of an idea, and that

was all. It was left for Adam Parkinson, of Manchester, to invent and make practical use of the cylinder

printing machine for calico in the year 1805, and this was still further advanced by the invention of James

Thompson, of Clitheroe, in 1813; while it was left for Frederick Koenig to invent and carry into practical

After some promising experiments, the plans for a new machine on the cylindrical principle were proceeded

with. Koenig admitted throughout the great benefit he derived from the assistance of his friend Bauer. "By

the judgment and precision," he said, "with which he executed my plans, he greatly contributed to my

success." A patent was taken out on October 30th, 1811; and the new machine was completed in December,

1812. The first sheets ever printed with an entirely cylindrical press, were sheets G and X of Clarkson's 'Life

of Penn.' The papers of the Protestant Union were also printed with it in February and March, 1813. Mr.

Koenig, in his account of the invention, says that "sheet M of Acton's 'Hortus Kewensis,' vol. v., will show

the progress of improvement in the use of the invention. Altogether, there are about 160,000 sheets now in

the hands of the public, printed with this machine, which, with the aid of two hands, takes off 800

Koenig took out a further patent on July 23rd, 1813, and a fourth (the last) on the 14th of March, 1814. The

contrivance of these various arrangements cost the inventor many anxious days and nights of study and

labour. But he saw before him only the end he wished to compass, and thought but little of himself and his

toils. It may be mentioned that the principal feature of the invention was the printing cylinder in the centre of

the machine, by which the impression was taken from the types, instead of by flat plates as in the first

arrangement. The forme was fixed in a castiron plate which was carried to and fro on a table, being received

at either end by strong spiral springs. A double machine, on the same principle,the forme alternately

passing under and giving an impression at one of two cylinders at either end of the press,was also included

How diligently Koenig continued to elaborate the details of his invention will be obvious from the two last

patents which he took out, in 1813 and 1814. In the first he introduced an important improvement in the

inking arrangement, and a contrivance for holding and carrying on the sheet, keeping it close to the printing

cylinder by means of endless tapes; while in the second, he added the following new expedients: a feeder,

consisting of an endless web,an improved arrangement of the endless tapes by inner as well as outer

friskets,an improvement of the register (that is, one page falling exactly on the back of another), by which

greater accuracy of impression was also secured; and finally, an arrangement by which the sheet was thrown

The partners in Koenig's Patents had established a manufactory in Whitecross Street for the production of the

new machines. The workmen employed were sworn to secrecy. They entered into an agreement by which

they were liable to forfeit 100L. if they communicated to others the secret of the machines, either by

drawings or description, or if they told by whom or for whom they were constructed. This was to avoid the

hostility of the pressmen, who, having heard of the new invention, were up in arms against it, as likely to

deprive them of their employment. And yet, as stated by Johnson in his 'Typographia,' the manual labour of

the men who worked at the hand press, was so severe and exhausting, "that the stoutest constitutions fell a

sacrifice to it in a few years." The number of sheets that could be thrown off was also extremely limited.

With the improved press, perfected by Earl Stanhope, about 250 impressions could be taken, or l25 sheets

printed on both sides in an hour. Although a greater number was produced in newspaper printing offices by

excessive labour, yet it was necessary to have duplicate presses, and to set up duplicate forms of type, to

carry on such extra work; and still the production of copies was quite inadequate to satisfy the rapidly

increasing demand for newspapers. The time was therefore evidently ripe for the adoption of such a machine

as that of Koenig. Attempts had been made by many inventors, but every one of them had failed. Printers

Such was the condition of affairs when Koenig finished his improved printing machine in the manufactory in

Whitecross Street. The partners in the invention were now in great hopes. When the machine had been got

ready for work, the proprietors of several of the leading London newspapers were invited to witness its

performances. Amongst them were Mr. Perry of the Morning chronicle, and Mr. Walter of The Times. Mr.

Perry would have nothing to do with the machine; he would not even go to see it, for he regarded it as a

gimcrack.[5] On the contrary, Mr. Walter, though he had five years before declined to enter into any

arrangement with Bensley, now that he heard the machine was finished, and at work, decided to go and

inspect it. It was thoroughly characteristic of the business spirit of the man. He had been very anxious to

apply increased mechanical power to the printing of his newspaper. He had consulted Isambard Brunelone

of the cleverest inventors of the dayon the subject; but Brunel, after studying the subject, and labouring

over a variety of plans, finally gave it up. He had next tried Thomas Martyn, an ingenious young compositor,

who had a scheme for a selfacting machine for working the printing press. But, although Mr. Walter

supplied him with the necessary funds, his scheme never came to anything. Now, therefore, was the chance

After carefully examining the machine at work, Mr. Walter was at once satisfied as to the great value of the

invention. He saw it turning out the impressions with unusual speed and great regularity. This was the very

machine of which he had been in search. But it turned out the impressions printed on one side only. Koenig,

however, having briefly explained the more rapid action of a double machine on the same principle for the

printing of newspapers, Mr. Walter, after a few minutes' consideration, and before leaving the premises,

ordered two double machines for the printing of The Times newspaper. Here, at last, was the opportunity for

The construction of the first newspaper machine was still, however, a work of great difficulty and labour. It

must be remembered that nothing of the kind had yet been made by any other inventor. The singlecylinder

machine, which Mr. Walter had seen at work, was intended for bookwork only. Now Koenig had to construct

a doublecylinder machine for printing newspapers, in which many of the arrangements must necessarily be

entirely new. With the assistance of his leading mechanic, Bauer, aided by the valuable suggestions of Mr.

Walter himself, Koenig at length completed his plans, and proceeded with the erection of the working

machine. The several parts were prepared at the workshop in Whitecross Street, and taken from thence, in as

secret a way as possible, to the premises in Printing House Square, adjoining The Times office, where they

were fitted together and erected into a working machine. Nearly two years elapsed before the press was ready

for work. Great as was the secrecy with which the operations were conducted, the pressmen of The Times

office obtained some inkling of what was going on, and they vowed vengeance to the foreign inventor who

threatened their craft with destruction. There was, however, always this consolation: every attempt that had

heretofore been made to print newspapers in any other way than by manual labour had proved an utter

At length the day arrived when the first newspaper steampress was ready for use. The pressmen were in a

state of great excitement, for they knew by rumour that the machine of which they had so long been

apprehensive was fast approaching completion. One night they were told to wait in the pressroom, as

important news was expected from abroad. At six o'clock in the morning of the 29th November, 1814, Mr.

Walter, who had been watching the working of the machine all through the night, suddenly appeared among

the pressmen, and announced that "The Times is already printed by steam!" Knowing that the pressmen had

vowed vengeance against the inventor and his invention, and that they had threatened "destruction to him and

his traps," he informed them that if they attempted violence, there was a force ready to suppress it; but that if

they were peaceable, their wages should be continued to every one of them until they could obtain similar

employment. This proved satisfactory so far, and he proceeded to distribute several copies of the newspaper

amongst themthe first newspaper printed by steam! That paper contained the following memorable

"Our Journal of this day presents to the Public the practical result of the greatest improvement connected with

printing since the discovery of the art itself. The reader of this paragraph now holds in his hand one of the

many thousand impressions of The Times newspaper which were taken off last night by a mechanical

apparatus. A system of machinery almost organic has been devised and arranged, which, while it relieves the

human frame of its most laborious' efforts in printing, far exceeds all human powers in rapidity and dispatch.

That the magnitude of the invention may be justly appreciated by its effects, we shall inform the public, that

after the letters are placed by the compositors, and enclosed in what is called the forme, little more remains

for man to do than to attend upon and to watch this unconscious agent in its operations. The machine is then

merely supplied with paper: itself places the forme, inks it, adjusts the paper to the forme newly inked,

stamps the sheet, and gives it forth to the hands of the attendant, at the same time withdrawing the forme for a

fresh coat of ink, which itself again distributes, to meet the ensuing sheet now advancing for impression; and

the whole of these complicated acts is performed with such a velocity and simultaneousness of movement,

"That the completion of an invention of this kind, not the effect of chance, but the result of mechanical

combinations methodically arranged in the mind of the artist, should be attended with many obstructions and

much delay, may be readily imagined. Our share in this event has, indeed, only been the application of the

discovery, under an agreement with the patentees, to our own particular business; yet few can

conceiveeven with this limited interestthe various disappointments and deep anxiety to which we have

Sir Christopher Wren's noblest monument is to be found in the building which he erected; so is the best

tribute of praise which we are capable of offering to the inventor of the printing machine, comprised in the

preceding description, which we have feebly sketched, of the powers and utility of his invention. It must

suffice to say further, that he is a Saxon by birth; that his name is Koenig; and that the invention has been

The machine continued to work steadily and satisfactorily, notwithstanding the doubters, the unbelievers, and

the threateners of vengeance. The leading article of The Times for December 3rd, 1814, contains the

"The machine of which we announced the discovery and our adoption a few days ago, has been whirling on

its course ever since, with improving order, regularity, and even speed. The length of the debates on

Thursday, the day when Parliament was adjourned, will have been observed; on such an occasion the

operation of composing and printing the last page must commence among all the journals at the same

moment; and starting from that moment, we, with our infinitely superior circulation, were enabled to throw

off our whole impression many hours before the other respectable rival prints. The accuracy and clearness of

"We shall make no reflections upon those by whom this wonderful discovery has been opposed,the

doubters and unbelievers, however uncharitable they may have been to us; were it not that the efforts of

genius are always impeded by drivellers of this description, and that we owe it to such men as Mr. Koenig

and his Friend, and all future promulgators of beneficial inventions, to warn them that they will have to

contend with everything that selfishness and conceited ignorance can devise or say; and if we cannot clear

their way before them, we would at least give them notice to prepare a panoply against its dirt and filth.

"There is another class of men from whom we receive dark and anonymous threats of vengeance if we

persevere in the use of this machine. These are the Pressmen. They well know, at least should well know, that

such menace is thrown away upon us. There is nothing that we will not do to assist and serve those whom we

have discharged. They themselves can seethe greater rapidity and precision with which the paper is printed.

What right have they to make us print it slower and worse for their supposed benefit? A little reflection,

indeed, would show them that it is neither in their power nor in ours to stop a discovery now made, if it is

beneficial to mankind; or to force it down if it is useless. They had better, therefore, acquiesce in a result

which they cannot alter; more especially as there will still be employment enough for the old race of

pressmen, before the new method obtains general use, and no new ones need be brought up to the business;

but we caution them seriously against involving themselves and their families in ruin, by becoming amenable

to the laws of their country. It has always been matter of great satisfaction to us to reflect, that we

encountered and crushed one conspiracy; and we should be sorry to find our work half done.

"It is proper to undeceive the world in one particular; that is, as to the number of men discharged. We in fact

employ only eight fewer workmen than formerly; whereas more than three times that number have been

On the 8th of December following, Mr. Koenig addressed an advertisement "To the Public" in the columns of

The Times, giving an account of the origin and progress of his invention. We have already cited several

passages from the statement. After referring to his two last patents, he says: "The machines now printing The

Times and Mail are upon the same principle; but they have been contrived for the particular purpose of a

"The public are undoubtedly aware, that never, perhaps, was a new invention put to so severe a trial as the

present one, by being used on its first public introduction for the printing of newspapers, and will, I trust, be

indulgent with respect to the many defects in the performance, though none of them are inherent in the

principle of the machine; and we hope, that in less than two months, the whole will be corrected by greater

adroitness in the management of it, so far at least as the hurry of newspaper printing will at all admit.

"It will appear from the foregoing narrative, that it was incorrectly stated in several newspapers, that I had

sold my interest to two other foreigners; my partners in this enterprise being at present two Englishmen, Mr.

Bensley and Mr. Taylor; and it is gratifying to my feelings to avail myself of this opportunity to thank those

gentlemen publicly for the confidence which they have reposed in me, for the aid of their practical skill, and

for the persevering support which they have afforded me in long and very expensive experiments; thus

"The first introduction of the invention was considered by some as a difficult and even hazardous step. The

Proprietor of The Times having made that his task, the public are aware that it is in good hands."

One would think that Koenig would now feel himself in smooth water, and receive a share of the good

fortune which he had so laboriously prepared for others. Nothing of the kind! His merits were disputed; his

rights were denied; his patents were infringed; and he never received any solid advantages for his invention,

until be left the country and took refuge in Germany. It is true, he remained for a few years longer, in charge

of the manufactory in Whitecross Street, but they were years to him of trouble and sorrow.

In 1816, Koenig designed and superintended the construction of a single cylinder registering machine for

bookprinting. This was supplied to Bensley and Son, and turned out 1000 sheets, printed on both sides, in

the hour. Blumenbach's 'Physiology' was the first entire book printed by steam, by this new machine. It was

afterwards employed, in l8l8, in working off the Literary Gazette. A machine of the same kind was supplied

to Mr. Richard Taylor for the purpose of printing the 'Philosophical Magazine,' and books generally. This was

afterwards altered to a double machine, and employed for printing the Weekly Dispatch.

But what about Koenig's patents? They proved of little use to him. They only proclaimed his methods, and

enabled other ingenious mechanics to borrow his adaptations. Now that he had succeeded in making

machines that would work, the way was clear for everybody else to follow his footsteps. It had taken him

more than six years to invent and construct a successful steam printing press; but any clever mechanic, by

merely studying his specification, and examining his machine at work, might arrive at the same results in less

The patents did not protect him. New specifications, embodying some modification or alteration in detail,

were lodged by other inventors and new patents taken out. New printing machines were constructed in

defiance of his supposed legal rights; and he found himself stripped of the reward that he had been labouring

for during so many long and toilsome years. He could not go to law, and increase his own vexation and loss.

He might get into Chancery easy enough; but when would he get out of it, and in what condition?

It must also be added, that Koenig was unfortunate in his partner Bensley. While the inventor was taking

steps to push the sale of his bookprinting machines among the London printers, Bensley, who was himself a

bookprinter, was hindering him in every way in his negotiations. Koenig was of opinion that Bensley

wished to retain the exclusive advantage which the possession of his registering book machine gave him over

the other printers, by enabling him to print more quickly and correctly than they could, and thus give him an

When Koenig, in despair at his position, consulted counsel as to the infringement of his patent, he was told

that he might institute proceedings with the best prospect of success; but to this end a perfect agreement by

the partners was essential. When, however, Koenig asked Bensley to concur with him in taking proceedings

in defence of the patent right, the latter positively refused to do so. Indeed, Koenig was under the impression

that his partner had even entered into an arrangement with the infringers of the patent to share with them the

Under these circumstances, it appeared to Koenig that only two alternatives remained for him to adopt. One

was to commence an expensive, and it might be a protracted, suit in Chancery, in defence of his patent rights,

with possibly his partner, Bensley, against him; and the other, to abandon his invention in England without

further struggle, and settle abroad. He chose the latter alternative, and left England finally in August, 1817.

Mr. Richard Taylor, the other partner in the patent, was an honourable man; but he could not control the

proceedings of Bensley. In a memoir published by him in the 'Philosophical Magazine,' "On the Invention

and First Introduction of Mr. Koenig's Printing Machine," in which he honestly attributes to him the sole

merit of the invention, he says, "Mr. Koenig left England, suddenly, in disgust at the treacherous conduct of

Bensley, always shabby and overreaching, and whom he found to be laying a scheme for defrauding his

partners in the patents of all the advantages to arise from them. Bensley, however, while he destroyed the

prospects of his partners, outwitted himself, and grasping at all, lost all, becoming bankrupt in fortune as well

Koenig was badly used throughout. His merits as an inventor were denied. On the 3rd of January, 1818, after

he had left England, Bensley published a letter in the Literary Gazette, in which he speaks of the printing

machine as his own, without mentioning a word of Koenig. The 'British Encyclopaedia,' in describing the

inventors of the printing machine, omitted the name of Koenig altogether. The 'Mechanics Magazine,' for

September, 1847, attributed the invention to the Proprietors of The Times, though Mr. Walter himself had

said that his share in the event had been "only the application of the discovery;" and the late Mr. Bennet

Woodcroft, usually a fair man, in his introductory chapter to 'Patents for Inventions in Printing,' attributes the

merit to William Nicholson's patent (No. 1748), which, he said, "produced an entire revolution in the

mechanism of the art." In other publications, the claims of Bacon and Donkin were put forward, while those

of the real inventor were ignored. The memoir of Koenig by Mr. Richard Taylor, in the 'Philosophical

Magazine,' was honest and satisfactory; and should have set the question at rest.

It may further be mentioned that William Nicholson,who was a patent agent, and a great taker out of

patents, both in his own name and in the names of others,was the person employed by Koenig as his agent

to take the requisite steps for registering his invention. When Koenig consulted him on the subject, Nicholson

observed that "seventeen years before he had taken out a patent for machine printing, but he had abandoned

it, thinking that it wouldn't do; and had never taken it up again." Indeed, the two machines were on different

principles. Nor did Nicholson himself ever make any claim to priority of invention, when the success of

Koenig's machine was publicly proclaimed by Mr. Walter of The Times some seven years later.

When Koenig, now settled abroad, heard of the attempts made in England to deny his merits as an inventor,

he merely observed to his friend Bauer, "It is really too bad that these people, who have already robbed me of

my invention, should now try to rob me of my reputation." Had he made any reply to the charges against him,

it might have been comprised in a very few words: "When I arrived in England, no steam printing machine

had ever before been seen; when I left it, the only printing machines in actual work were those which I had

constructed." But Koenig never took the trouble to defend the originality of his invention in England, now

There can be no question as to the great improvements introduced in the printing machine by Mr. Applegath

and Mr. Cowper; by Messrs. Hoe and Sons, of New York; and still later by the present Mr. Walter of The

Times, which have brought the art of machine printing to an extraordinary degree of perfection and speed.

But the original merits of an invention are not to be determined by a comparison of the first machine of the

kind ever made with the last, after some sixty years' experience and skill have been applied in bringing it to

perfection. Were the first condensing engine made at Sohonow to be seen at the Museum in South

Kensingtonin like manner to be compared with the last improved pumpingengine made yesterday, even

the great James Watt might be made out to have been a very poor contriver. It would be much fairer to

compare Koenig's steamprinting machine with the handpress newspaper printing machine which it

superseded. Though there were steam engines before Watt, and steamboats before Fulton, and steam

locomotives before Stephenson, there were no steam printing presses before Koenig with which to compare

The rest of Koenig's life, after he retired to Germany, was spent in industry, if not in peace and quietness. He

could not fail to be cast down by the utter failure of his English partnership, and the loss of the fruits of his

ingenious labours. But instead of brooding over his troubles, he determined to break away from them, and

begin the world anew. He was only fortythree when he left England, and he might yet be able to establish

Though England was virtually closed against him, the whole continent of Europe was open to him, and

While residing in England, Koenig had received many communications from influential printers in Germany.

Johann Spencer and George Decker wrote to him in 1815, asking for particulars about his invention; but

finding his machine too expensive,[7] the latter commissioned Koenig to send him a Stanhope printing

pressthe first ever introduced into Germany the price of which was 95L. Koenig did this service for his

friend, for although he stood by the superior merits of his own invention, he was sufficiently liberal to

recognise the merits of the inventions of others. Now that he was about to settle in Germany, he was able to

The question arose, where was he to settle? He made enquiries about sites along the Rhine, the Neckar, and

the Main. At last he was attracted by a specially interesting spot at Oberzell on the Main, near Wurzburg. It

was an old disused convent of the Praemonstratensian monks. The place was conveniently situated for

business, being nearly in the centre of Germany. The Bavarian Government, desirous of giving

encouragement to so useful a genius, granted Koenig the use of the secularised monastery on easy terms; and

there accordingly he began his operations in the course of the following year. Bauer soon joined him, with an

order from Mr. Walter for an improved Times machine; and the two men entered into a partnership which

The partners had at first great difficulties to encounter in getting their establishment to work. Oberzell was a

rural village, containing only common labourers, from whom they had to select their workmen. Every person

taken into the concern had to be trained and educated to mechanical work by the partners themselves. With

indescribable patience they taught these labourers the use of the hammer, the file, the turninglathe, and other

tools, which the greater number of them had never before seen, and of whose uses they were entirely

ignorant. The machinery of the workshop was got together with equal difficulty piece by piece, some of the

parts from a great distance,the mechanical arts being then at a very low ebb in Germany, which was still

At length the workshop was fitted up, the old barn of the monastery being converted into an iron foundry.

Orders for printing machines were gradually obtained. The first came from Brockhaus, of Leipzig. By the end

of the fourth year two other singlecylinder machines were completed and sent to Berlin, for use in the State

printing office. By the end of the eighth year seven doublecylinder steam presses had been manufactured for

the largest newspaper printers in Germany. The recognised excellence of Koenig and Bauer's bookprinting

machinestheir perfect register, and the quality of the work they turned outsecured for them an

increasing demand, and by the year 1829 the firm had manufactured fiftyone machines for the leading book

printers throughout Germany. The Oberzell manufactory was now in full work, and gave regular employment

A period of considerable depression followed. As was the case in England, the introduction of the printing

machine in Germany excited considerable hostility among the pressmen. In some of the principal towns they

entered into combinations to destroy them, and several printing machines were broken by violence and

irretrievably injured. But progress could not be stopped; the printing machine had been fairly born, and must

eventually do its work for mankind. These combinations, however, had an effect for a time. They deterred

other printers from giving orders for the machines; and Koenig and Bauer were under the necessity of

suspending their manufacture to a considerable extent. To keep their men employed, the partners proceeded

to fit up a paper manufactory, Mr. Cotta, of Stuttgart, joining them in the adventure; and a mill was fitted up,

Koenig, however, did not live to enjoy the fruits or all his study, labour, toil, and anxiety; for, while this

enterprise was still in progress, and before the machine trade had revived, he was taken ill, and confined to

bed. He became sleepless; his nerves were unstrung; and no wonder. Brain disease carried him off on the

17th of January, 1833; and this good, ingenious, and admirable inventor was removed from all further care

He died at the early age of fiftyeight, respected and beloved by all who knew him.

His partner Bauer survived to continue the business for twenty years longer. It was during this later period

that the Oberzell manufactory enjoyed its greatest prosperity. The prejudices of the workmen gradually

subsided when they found that machine printing, instead of abridging employment, as they feared it would

do, enormously increased it; and orders accordingly flowed in from Berlin, Vienna, and all the leading towns

and cities of Germany, Austria, Denmark, Russia, and Sweden. The six hundredth machine, turned out in

1847, was capable of printing 6000 impressions in the hour. In March, 1865, the thousandth machine was

completed at Oberzell, on the occasion of the celebration of the fifty years' jubilee of the invention of the

The sons of Koenig carried on the business; and in the biography by Goebel, it is stated that the manufactory

of Oberzell has now turned out no fewer than 3000 printing machines. The greater number have been

supplied to Germany; but 660 were sent to Russia, 61 to Asia, 12 to England, and 11 to America. The rest

were despatched to Italy, Switzerland, Sweden, Spain, Holland, and other countries.

It remains to be said that Koenig and Bauer, united in life, were not divided by death. Bauer died on February

27, 1860, and the remains of the partners now lie side by side in the little cemetery at Oberzell, close to the

[5] Mr. Richard Taylor, one of the partners in the patent, says, "Mr. Perry declined, alleging that he did not

consider a newspaper worth so many years' purchase as would equal the cost of the machine."

[6] Mr. Richard Taylor, F.S.A., memoir in 'Philosophical Magazine' for October 1847, p. 300.

[7] The price of a single cylinder nonregistering machine was advertised at 900L.; of a double ditto, 1400L.;

and of a cylinder registering machine, 2000L.; added to which was 250L., 350L., and 500L. per annum for

each of these machines so long as the patent lasted, or an agreed sum to be paid down at once.

The late John Walter, who adopted Koenig's steam printing press in printing The Times, was virtually the

inventor of the modern newspaper. The first John Walter, his father, learnt the art of printing in the office of

Dodsley, the proprietor of the 'Annual Register.' He afterwards pursued the profession of an underwriter, but

his fortunes were literally shipwrecked by the capture of a fleet of merchantmen by a French squadron.

Compelled by this loss to return to his trade, he succeeded in obtaining the publication of 'Lloyd's List,' as

well as the printing of the Board of Customs. He also established himself as a publisher and bookseller at No.

8, Charing Cross. But his principal achievement was in founding The Times newspaper.

The Daily Universal Register was started on the 1st of January, 1785, and was described in the heading as

"printed logographically." The type had still to be composed, letter by letter, each placed alongside of its

predecessor by human fingers. Mr. Walter's invention consisted in using stereotyped words and parts of

words instead of separate metal letters, by which a certain saving of time and labour was effected. The name

of the 'Register' did not suit, there being many other publications bearing a similar title. Accordingly, it was

renamed The Times, and the first number was issued from Printing House Square on the 1st of January,

The Times was at first a very meagre publication. It was not much bigger than a number of the old 'Penny

Magazine,' containing a single short leader on some current topic, without any pretensions to excellence;

some driblets of news spread out in large type; half a column of foreign intelligence, with a column of

facetious paragraphs under the heading of "The Cuckoo;" while the rest of each number consisted of

advertisements. Notwithstanding the comparative innocence of the contents of the early numbers of the

paper, certain passages which appeared in it on two occasions subjected the publisher to imprisonment in

Newgate. The extent of the offence, on one occasion, consisted in the publication of a short paragraph

intimating that their Royal Highnesses the Prince of Wales and the Duke of York had "so demeaned

themselves as to incur the just disapprobation of his Majesty!" For such slight offences were printers sent to

Although the first Mr. Walter was a man of considerable business ability, his exertions were probably too

much divided amongst a variety of pursuits to enable him to devote that exclusive attention to The Times

He possibly regarded it, as other publishers of newspapers then did, mainly as a means of obtaining a

profitable business in jobprinting. Hence, in the elder Walter's hands, the paper was not only unprofitable in

itself, but its maintenance became a source of gradually increasing expenditure; and the proprietor seriously

At this juncture, John Walter, junior, who had been taken into the business as a partner, entreated his father to

entrust him with the sole conduct of the paper, and to give it "one more trial." This was at the beginning of

1803. The new editor and conductor was then only twentyseven years of age. He had been trained to the

manual work of a printer "at case," and passed through nearly every department in the office, literary and

mechanical. But in the first place, he had received a very liberal education, first at Merchant Taylors' School,

and afterwards at Trinity College, Oxford, where he pursued his classical studies with much success. He was

thus a man of wellcultured mind; he had been thoroughly disciplined to work; he was, moreover, a man of

tact and energy, full of expedients, and possessed by a passion for business. His father, urged by the young

man's entreaties, at length consented, although not without misgivings, to resign into his hands the entire

Young Walter proceeded forthwith to remodel the establishment, and to introduce improvements into every

department, as far as the scanty capital at his command would admit. Before he assumed the direction, The

Times did not seek to guide opinion or to exercise political influence. It was a scanty newspapernothing

more, Any political matters referred to were usually introduced in "Letters to the Editor," in the form in

which Junius's Letters first appeared in the Public Advertiser. The comments on political affairs by the Editor

Mr. Walter, very much to the dismay of his father, struck out an entirely new course. He boldly stated his

views on public affairs, bringing his strong and original judgment to bear upon the political and social topics

of the day. He carefully watched and closely studied public opinion, and discussed general questions in all

their bearings. He thus invented the modern Leading Article. The adoption of an independent line of politics

necessarily led him to canvass freely, and occasionally to condemn, the measures of the Government. Thus,

he had only been about a year in office as editor, when the Sidmouth Administration was succeeded by that

of Mr. Pitt, under whom Lord Melville undertook the unfortunate Catamaran expedition. His Lordship's

malpractices in the Navy Department had also been brought to light by the Commissioners of Naval Inquiry.

On both these topics Mr. Walter spoke out freely in terms of reprobation; and the result was, that the printing

for the Customs and the Government advertisements were at once removed from The Times office.

Two years later Mr. Pitt died, and an Administration succeeded which contained a portion of the political

chiefs whom the editor had formerly supported on his undertaking the management of the paper. He was

invited by one of them to state the injustice which had been done to him by the loss of the Customs printing,

and a memorial to the Treasury was submitted for his signature, with a view to its recovery. But believing

that the reparation of the injury in this manner was likely to be considered as a favour, entitling those who

granted it to a certain degree of influence over the politics of the journal, Walter refused to sign it, or to have

any concern in presenting the memorial. He did more; he wrote to those from whom the restoration of the

employment was expected to come, disavowing all connection with the proceeding. The matter then dropped,

This course was so unprecedented, and, as his father thought, was so very wrongheaded, that young Walter

had for some time considerable difficulty in holding his ground and maintaining the independent position he

had assumed. But with great tenacity of purpose he held on his course undismayed. He was a man who

looked far ahead,not so much taking into account the results at the end of each day or of each year, but

how the plan he had laid down for conducting the paper would work out in the long run. And events proved

that the highminded course he had pursued with so much firmness of purpose was the wisest course after

Another feature in the management which showed clearsightedness and business acuteness, was the pains

which the Editor took to ensure greater celerity of information and dispatch in printing. The expense which

he incurred in carrying out these objects excited the serious displeasure of his father, who regarded them as

acts of juvenile folly and extravagance. Another circumstance strongly roused the old man's wrath. It appears

that in those days the insertion of theatrical puffs formed a considerable source of newspaper income; and yet

young Walter determined at once to abolish them. It is not a little remarkable that these earliest acts of Mr.

Walterwhich so clearly marked his enterprise and highmindednessshould have been made the subject

Notwithstanding this serious opposition from within, the power and influence of the paper visibly and rapidly

grew. The new Editor concentrated in the columns of his paper a range of information such as had never

before been attempted, or indeed thought possible. His vigilant eye was directed to every detail of his

business. He greatly improved the reporting of public meetings, the money market, and other

intelligence,aiming at greater fulness and accuracy. In the department of criticism his labours were

unwearied. He sought to elevate the character of the paper, and rendered it more dignified by insisting that it

should be impartial. He thus conferred the greatest public service upon literature, the drama, and the fine arts,

by protecting them against the evil influences of venal panegyric on the one hand, and of prejudiced hostility

But the most remarkable feature of The Times that which emphatically commended it to public support and

ensured its commercial successwas its department of foreign intelligence. At the time that Walter

undertook the management of the journal, Europe was a vast theatre of war; and in the conduct of commercial

affairsnot to speak of political movementsit was of the most vital importance that early information

should be obtained of affairs on the Continent. The Editor resolved to become himself the purveyor of foreign

intelligence, and at great expense he despatched his agents in all directions, even in the track of armies; while

others were employed, under various disguises and by means of sundry pretexts, in many parts of the

Continent. These agents collected information, and despatched it to London, often at considerable risks, for

publication in The Times, where it usually appeared long in advance of the government despatches.

The late Mr. Pryme, in his 'Autobiographic Recollections,' mentions a visit which he paid to Mr. Walter at his

seat at Bearwood. "He described to me," says Mr.Pryme, "the cause of the large extension in the circulation

of The Times. He was the first to establish a foreign correspondent. This was Henry Crabb Robinson, at a

salary of 300L. a year.... Mr. Walter also established local reporters, instead of copying from the country

papers. His father doubted the wisdom of such a large expenditure, but the son prophesied a gradual and

Mr. Robinson has described in his Diary the manner in which he became connected with the foreign

correspondence. "In January, 1807," he says, "I received, through my friend J.D. Collier, a proposal from Mr.

Walter that I should take up my residence at Altona, and become The Times correspondent. I was to receive

from the editor of the 'Hamburger Correspondenten' all the public documents at his disposal, and was to have

the benefit also of a mass of information, of which the restraints of the German Press did not permit him to

avail himself. The honorarium I was to receive was ample with my habits of life. I gladly accepted the offer,

and never repented having done so. My acquaintance with Mr. Walter ripened into friendship, and lasted as

Mr. Robinson was forced to leave Germany by the Battle of Friedland and the Treaty of Tilsit, which resulted

in the naval coalition against England. Returning to London, he became foreign editor of The Times until the

following year, when he proceeded to Spain as foreign correspondent. Mr. Walter had also an agent in the

track of the army in the unfortunate Walcheren expedition; and The Times announced the capitulation of

Flushing fortyeight hours before the news had arrived by any other channel. By this prompt method of

communicating public intelligence, the practice, which had previously existed, of systematically retarding the

publication of foreign news by officials at the General Post Office, who made gain by selling them to the

This circumstance, as well as the independent course which Mr. Walter adopted in the discussion of foreign

politics, explains in some measure the opposition which he had to encounter in the transmission of his

despatches. As early as the year 1805, when he had come into collision with the Government and lost the

Customs printing, The Times despatches were regularly stopped at the outports, whilst those for the

Ministerial journals were allowed to proceed. This might have crushed a weaker man, but it did not crush

Walter. Of course he expostulated. He was informed at the Home Secretary's office that he might be

permitted to receive his foreign papers as a favour. But as this implied the expectation of a favour from him

in return, the proposal was rejected; and, determined not to be baffled, he employed special couriers, at great

cost, for the purpose of obtaining the earliest transmission of foreign intelligence.

These important qualitiesenterprise, energy, business tact, and public spiritsufficiently account for his

remarkable success. To these, however, must be added another of no small importance discernment and

knowledge of character. Though himself the head and front of his enterprise, it was necessary that he should

secure the services and cooperation of men of firstrate ability; and in the selection of such men his

judgment was almost unerring. By his discernment and munificence, he collected round him some of the

ablest writers of the age. These were frequently revealed to him in the communications of

correspondentsthe author of the letters signed "Vetus" being thus selected to write in the leading columns

of the Paper. But Walter himself was the soul of The Times. It was he who gave the tone to its articles,

directed its influence, and superintended its entire conduct with unremitting vigilance.

Even in conducting the mechanical arrangements of the papera business of no small difficultyhe had

often occasion to exercise promptness and boldness of decision in cases of emergency. Printers in those days

were a rather refractory class of work men, and not unfrequently took advantage of their position to impose

hard terms on their employers, especially in the daily press, where everything must be promptly done within a

very limited time. Thus on one occasion, in 1810, the pressmen made a sudden demand upon the proprietor

for an increase of wages, and insisted upon a uniform rate being paid to all hands, whether good or bad.

Walter was at first disposed to make concessions to the men; but having been privately informed that a

combination was already entered into by the compositors, as well as by the pressmen, to leave his

employment suddenly, under circumstances that would have stopped the publication of the paper, and

inflicted on him the most serious injury, he determined to run all risks, rather than submit to what now

The strike took place on a Saturday morning, when suddenly, and without notice, all the hands turned out.

Mr. Walter had only a few hours' notice of it, but he had already resolved upon his course. He collected

apprentices from half a dozen different quarters, and a few inferior workmen, who were glad to obtain

employment on any terms. He himself stript to his shirtsleeves, and went to work with the rest; and for the

next sixandthirty hours he was incessantly employed at case and at press. On the Monday morning, the

conspirators, who had assembled to triumph over his ruin, to their inexpressible amazement saw The Times

issue from the publishing office at the usual hour, affording a memorable example of what one man's resolute

The journal continued to appear with regularity, though the printers employed at the office lived in a state of

daily peril. The conspirators, finding themselves baffled, resolved upon trying another game. They contrived

to have two of the men employed by Walter as compositors apprehended as deserters from the Royal Navy.

The men were taken before the magistrate; but the charge was only sustained by the testimony of clumsy,

perjured witnesses, and fell to the ground. The turnouts next proceeded to assault the new hands, when Mr.

Walter resolved to throw around them the protection of the law. By the advice of counsel, he had twentyone

of the conspirators apprehended and tried, and nineteen of them were found guilty and condemned to various

periods of imprisonment. From that moment combination was at an end in Printing House Square.

Mr. Walter's greatest achievement was his successful application of steam power to newspaper printing.

Although he had greatly improved the mechanical arrangements after he took command of the paper, the rate

at which the copies could be printed off remained almost stationary. It took a very long time indeed to throw

off, by the handlabour of pressmen, the three or four thousand copies which then constituted the ordinary

circulation of The Times. On the occasion of any event of great public interest being reported in the paper, it

was found almost impossible to meet the demand for copies. Only about 300 copies could be printed in the

hour, with one man to ink the types and another to work the press, while the labour was very severe. Thus it

took a long time to get out the daily impression, and very often the evening papers were out before The Times

Mr. Walter could not brook the tedium of this irksome and laborious process. To increase the number of

impressions, he resorted to various expedients. The type was set up in duplicate, and even in triplicate;

several Stanhope presses were kept constantly at work; and still the insatiable demands of the newsmen on

certain occasions could not be met. Thus the question was early forced upon his consideration, whether he

could not devise machinery for the purpose of expediting the production of newspapers. Instead of 300

impressions an hour, he wanted from 1500 to 2000. Although such a speed as this seemed quite as chimerical

as propelling a ship through the water against wind and tide at fifteen miles an hour, or running a locomotive

on a railway at fifty, yet Mr. Walter was impressed with the conviction that a much more rapid printing of

newspapers was feasible than by the slow handlabour process; and he endeavoured to induce several

The principle of producing impressions by means of a cylinder, and of inking the types by means of a roller,

was not new. We have seen, in the preceding memoir, that as early as 1790 William Nicholson had patented

such a method, but his scheme had never been brought into practical operation. Mr. Walter endeavoured to

enlist Marc Isambard Brunelone of the cleverest inventors of the dayin his proposed method of rapid

printing by machinery; but after labouring over a variety of plans for a considerable time, Brunel finally gave

up the printing machine, unable to make anything of it. Mr. Walter next tried Thomas Martyn, an ingenious

young compositor, who had a scheme for a selfacting machine for working the printing press. He was

supplied with the necessary funds to enable him to prosecute his idea; but Mr. Walter's father was opposed to

the scheme, and when the funds became exhausted, this scheme also fell to the ground.

As years passed on, and the circulation of the paper increased, the necessity for some more expeditious

method of printing became still more urgent. Although Mr. Walter had declined to enter into an arrangement

with Bensley in 1809, before Koenig had completed his invention of printing by cylinders, it was different

five years later, when Koenig's printing machine was actually at work. In the preceding memoir, the

circumstances connected with the adoption of the invention by Mr. Walter are fully related; as well as the

announcement made in The Times on the 29th of November, 1814the day on which the first newspaper

But Koenig's printing machine was but the beginning of a great new branch of industry. After he had left this

country in disgust, it remained for others to perfect the invention; although the ingenious German was

entitled to the greatest credit for having made the first satisfactory beginning. Great inventions are not

brought forth at a heat. They are begun by one man, improved by another, and perfected by a whole host of

mechanical inventors. Numerous patents were taken out for the mechanical improvement of printing. Donkin

and Bacon contrived a machine in 1813, in which the types were placed on a revolving prism. One of them

was made for the University of Cambridge, but it was found too complicated; the inking was defective; and

In 1816, Mr. Cowper obtained a patent (No.3974) entitled," A Method of Printing Paper for Paper Hangings,

The principal feature of this invention consisted in the curving or bending of stereotype plates for the purpose

of being printed in that form. A number of machines for printing in two colours, in exact register, was made

for the Bank of England, and four millions of One Pound notes were printed before the Bank Directors

determined to abolish their further issue. The regular mode of producing stereotype plates, from plaster of

Paris moulds, took so much time, that they could not then be used for newspaper printing.

Two years later, in 1818, Mr. Cowper invented and patented (No. 4194) his great improvements in printing. It

may be mentioned that he was then himself a printer, in partnership with Mr. Applegath, his brotherinlaw.

His invention consisted in the perfect distribution of the ink, by giving end motion to the rollers, so as to get a

distribution crossways, as well as lengthways. This principle is at the very foundation of good printing, and

has been adopted in every machine since made. The very first experiment proved that the principle was right.

Mr. Cowper was asked by Mr. Walter to alter Koenig's machine at The Times office, so as to obtain good

distribution. He adopted two of Nicholson's single cylinders and flat formes of type. Two "drums" were

placed betwixt the cylinders to ensure accuracy in the register,over and under which the sheet was

conveyed in it s progress from one cylinder to the other,the sheet being at all times firmly held between

two tapes, which bound it to the cylinders and drums. This is commonly called, in the trade, a "perfecting

machine;" that is, it printed the paper on both sides simultaneously, and is still much used for "bookwork,"

After this, Mr. Cowper designed the four cylinder machine for The Times,by means of which from 4000 to

5000 sheets could be printed from one forme in the hour. In 1823, Mr. Applegath invented an improvement in

the inking apparatus, by placing the distributing rollers at an angle across the distributing table, instead of

Mr. Walter continued to devote the same unremitting attention to his business as before. He looked into all

the details, was familiar with every department, and, on an emergency, was willing to lend a hand in any

Thus, it is related of him that, in the spring of 1833, shortly after his return to Parliament as Member for

Berkshire, he was at The Times office one day, when an express arrived from Paris, bringing the speech of

the King of the French on the opening of the Chambers. The express arrived at 10 A.M., after the day's

impression of the paper had been published, and the editors and compositors had left the office. It was

important that the speech should be published at once; and Mr. Walter immediately set to work upon it. He

first translated the document; then, assisted by one compositor, he took his place at the typecase, and set it

up. To the amazement of one of the staff, who dropped in about noon, he "found Mr. Walter, M.P. for Berks,

working in his shirtsleeves!" The speech was set and printed, and the second edition was in the City by one

o'clock. Had he not "turned to" as he did, the whole expense of the express service would have been lost. And

it is probable that there was not another man in the whole establishment who could have performed the

double workintellectual and physicalwhich he that day executed with his own head and hands.

Such an incident curiously illustrates his eminent success in life. It was simply the result of persevering

diligence, which shrank from no effort and neglected no detail; as well as of prudence allied to boldness, but

certainly not "of chance;" and, above all, of highminded integrity and unimpeachable honesty. It is perhaps

unnecessary to add more as to the merits of Mr. Walter as a man of enterprise in business, or as a public man

and a Member of Parliament. The great work of his life was the development of his journal, the history of

The progressive improvement of steam printing machinery was not affected by Mr. Walter's death, which

occurred in 1847. He had given it an impulse which it never lost. In 1846 Mr. Applegath patented certain

important improvements in the steam press. The general disposition of his new machine was that of a vertical

cylinder 200 inches in circumference, holding on it the type and distributing surfaces, and surrounded

alternately by inking rollers and pressing cylinders. Mr. Applegath estimated in his specification that in his

new vertical system the machine, with eight cylinders, would print about 10,000 sheets per hour. The new

printing press came into use in 1848, and completely justified the anticipations of its projector.

Applegath's machine, though successfully employed at The Times office, did not come into general use. It

was, to a large extent, superseded by the invention of Richard M. Hoe, of New York. Hoe's process consisted

in placing the types upon a horizontal cylinder, against which the sheets were pressed by exterior and smaller

cylinders. The types were arranged in segments of a circle, each segment forming a frame that could be fixed

on the cylinder. These printing machines were made with from two to ten subsidiary cylinders. The first

presses sent by Messrs. Hoe Co. to this country were for Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper, and were of the

sixcylinder size. These were followed by two tencylinder machines, ordered by the present Mr. Walter, for

The Times. Other English newspaper proprietorsboth in London and the provinceswere supplied with

the machines, as many as thirtyfive having been imported from America between 1856 and 1862. It may be

mentioned that the two tencylinder Hoes made for The Times were driven at the rate of thirtytwo

revolutions per minute, which gives a printing rate of 19,200 per hour, or about 16,000 including stoppages.

Much of the ingenuity exercised both in the Applegath and Hoe Machines was directed to the "chase," which

had to hold securely upon its curved face the mass of movable type required to form a page. And now the

enterprise of the proprietor of The Times again came to the front. The change effected in the art of

newspaperprinting, by the process of stereotypes, is scarcely inferior to that by which the late Mr. Walter

applied steampower to the printing press, and certainly equal to that by which the rotary press superseded

Stereotyping has a curious history. Many attempts were made to obtain solid printingsurfaces by transfer

from similar surfaces, composed, in the first place, of movable types. The first who really succeeded was one

Ged, an Edinburgh goldsmith, who, after a series of difficult experiments, arrived at a knowledge of the art of

stereotyping. The first method employed was to pour liquid stucco, of the consistency of cream, over the

types; and this, when solid, gave a perfect mould. Into this the molten metal was poured, and a plate was

produced, accurately resembling the page of type. As long ago as 1730, Ged obtained a privilege from the

University of Cambridge for printing Bibles and Prayerbooks after this method. But the workmen were dead

against it, as they thought it would destroy their trade. The compositors and the pressmen purposely battered

the letters in the absence of their employers. In consequence of this interference Ged was ruined, and died in

The art had, however, been born, and could not be kept down. It was revived in France, in Germany, and in

America. Fifty years after the discovery of Ged, Tilloch and Foulis, of Glasgow, patented a similar invention,

without knowing anything of what Ged had done; and after great labour and many experiments, they

produced plates, the impressions from which could not be distinguished from those taken from the types from

which they were cast. Some years afterwards, Lord Stanhope, to whom the art of printing is much indebted,

greatly improved the art of stereotyping, though it was still quite inapplicable to newspaper printing. The

merit of this latter invention is due to the enterprise of the present proprietor of The Times.

Mr. Walter began his experiments, aided by an ingenious Italian founder named Dellagana, early in 1856. It

was ascertained that when papiermache matrices were rapidly dried and placed in a mould, separate

columns might be cast in them with stereotype metal, type high, planed flat, and finished with sufficient

speed to get up the duplicate of a forme of four pages fitted for printing. Steps were taken to adapt these

typehigh columns to the Applegath Presses, then worked with polygonal chases. When the Hoe machines

were introduced, instead of dealing with the separate columns, the papiermache matrix was taken from the

whole page at one operation, by rollerpresses constructed for the purpose. The impression taken off in this

manner is as perfect as if it had been made in the finest wax. The matrix is rapidly dried on heating surfaces,

and then accurately adjusted in a casting machine curved to the exact circumference of the main drum of the

printing press, and fitted with a terracotta top to secure a casting of uniform thickness. On pouring

stereotype metal into this mould, a curved plate was obtained, which, after undergoing a certain amount of

trimming at two machines, could be taken to press and set to work within twentyfive minutes from the time

Besides the great advantages obtained from uniform sets of the plates, which might be printed on different

machines at the rate of 50,000 impressions an hour, or such additional number as might be required, there is

this other great advantage, that there is no wear and tear of type in the curved chases by obstructive friction;

and that the fount, instead of wearing out in two years, might last for twenty; for the plates, after doing their

work for one day, are melted down into a new impression for the next day's printing. At the same time, the

original typepage, safe from injury, can be made to yield any number of copies that may be required by the

exigencies of the circulation. It will be sufficiently obvious that by the multiplication of stereotype plates and

printing machines, there is practically no limit to the number of copies of a newspaper that may be printed

This new method of newspaper stereotyping was originally employed on the cylinders of the Applegath and

Hoe Presses. But it is equally applicable to those of the Walter Press, a brief description of which we now

subjoin. As the construction of the first steam newspaper machine was due to the enterprise of the late Mr.

Walter, so the construction of this last and most improved machine is due in like manner to the enterprise of

his son. The new Walter Press is not, like Applegath and Cowper's, and Hoe's, the improvement of an

In the Reports of the Jurors on the "Plate, Letterpress, and other modes of Printing," at the International

Exhibition of 1862, the following passage occurs: "It is incumbent on the reporters to point out that,

excellent and surprising as are the results achieved by the Hoe and Applegath Machines, they cannot be

considered satisfactory while those machines themselves are so liable to stoppages in working. No true

mechanic can contrast the immense American tencylinder presses of The Times with the simple

calicoprinting machine, without feeling that the latter furnishes the true type to which the mechanism for

On this principle, so clearly put forward, the Inventors of the Walter Press proceeded in the contrivance of the

new machine. It is true that William Nicholson, in his patent of 1790, prefigured the possibility of printing on

"paper, linen, cotton, woollen, and other articles," by means of type fixed on the outer surface of a revolving

cylinder; but no steps were taken to carry his views into effect. Sir Rowland Hill also, before he became

connected with Post Office reform, revived the contrivance of Nicholson, and referred to it in his patent of

1835 (No. 6762); and he also proposed to use continuous rolls of paper, which Fourdrinier and Donkin had

made practicable by their invention of the papermaking machine about the year 1804; but both Nicholson's

It may be easy to conceive a printing machine, or even to make a model of one; but to construct an actual

working printing press, that must be sure and unfailing in its operations, is a matter surrounded with

difficulties. At every step fresh contrivances have to be introduced; they have to be tried again and again;

perhaps they are eventually thrown aside to give place to new arrangements. Thus the head of the inventor is

kept in a state of constant turmoil. Sometimes the whole machine has to be remodelled from beginning to

end. One step is gained by degrees, then another; and at last, after years of labour, the new invention comes

In 1862 Mr. Walter began in The Times office, with tools and machinery of his own, experiments for

constructing a perfecting press which should print the paper from rolls of paper instead of from sheets. Like

his father, Mr. Walter possessed an excellent discrimination of character, and selected the best men to aid him

in his important undertaking. Numerous difficulties had, of course, to be surmounted. Plans were varied from

time to time; new methods were tried, altered, and improved, simplification being aimed at throughout. Six

long years passed in this pursuit of the possible. At length the clear light dawned. In 1868 Mr. Walter

ventured to order the construction of three machines on the pattern of the first complete one which had been

made. By the end of 1869 these were finished and placed in a room by themselves; and a fourth was

afterwards added. There the printing of The Times is now done, in less than half the time it previously

The most remarkable feature in the Walter Press is its wonderful simplicity of construction. Simplicity of

arrangement is always the beau ideal of the mechanical engineer. This printing press is not only simple, but

While each of the tenfeeder Hoe Machines occupies a large and lofty room, and requires eighteen men to

feed and work it, the new Walter Machine occupies a space of only about l4 feet by 5, or less than any

newspaper machine yet introduced; and it requires only three lads to take away, with half the attention of an

overseer, who easily superintends two of the machines while at work. The Hoe Machine turns out 7000

impressions printed on both sides in the hour, whereas the Walter Machine turns out 12,000 impressions

The new Walter Press does not in the least resemble any existing printing machine, unless it be the

calendering machine which furnished its type. At the printing end it looks like a collection of small cylinders

or rollers. The first thing to be observed is the continuous roll of paper four miles long, tightly mounted on a

reel, which, when the machine is going, flies round with immense rapidity. The web of paper taken up by the

first roller is led into a series of small hollow cylinders filled with water and steam, perforated with thousands

of minute holes. By this means the paper is properly damped before the process of printing is begun. The roll

of paper, drawn by nipping rollers, next flies through to the cylinder on which the stereotype plates are fixed,

so as to form the four pages of the ordinary sheet of The Times; there it is lightly pressed against the type and

printed; then it passes downwards round another cylinder covered with cloth, and reversed; next to the second

typecovered roller, where it takes the impression exactly on the other side of the remaining four pages. It

next reaches one of the most ingenious contrivances of the inventionthe cutting machinery, by means of

which the paper is divided by a quick knife into the 5500 sheets of which the entire web consists. The tapes

hurry the now completely printed newspaper up an inclined plane, from which the divided sheets are

showered down in a continuous stream by an oscillating frame, where they are met by two boys, who adjust

the sheets as they fall. The reel of four miles long is printed and divided into newspapers complete in about

The machine is almost entirely selfacting, from the pumpingup of the ink into the inkbox out of the

cistern below stairs, to the registering of the numbers as they are printed in the manager's room above. It is

always difficult to describe a machine in words. Nothing but a series of sections and diagrams could give the

reader an idea of the construction of this unrivalled instrument. The time to see it and wonder at it is when the

press is in full work. And even then you can see but little of its construction, for the cylinders are wheeling

round with immense velocity. The rapidity with which the machine works may be inferred from the fact that

the printing cylinders (round which the stereotyped plates are fixed), while making their impressions on the

paper, travel at the surprising speed of 200 revolutions a minute, or at the rate of about nine miles an hour!

Contrast this speed with the former slowness. Go back to the beginning of the century. Before the year 1814

the turnout of newspapers was only about 300 single impressions in an hourthat is, impressions printed

on only one side of the paper. Koenig by his invention increased the issue to 1100 impressions. Applegath

and Cowper by their fourcylinder machine increased the issue to 4000, and by the eightcylinder machine

to 10,000 an hour. But these were only impressions printed on one side of the paper. The first perfecting

pressthat is, printing simultaneously the paper on both sideswas the Walter, the speed of which has been

raised to 12,000, though, if necessary, it can produce excellent work at the rate of 17,000 complete copies of

an eightpage paper per hour. Then, with the new method of stereotypingby means of which the plates can

be infinitely multiplied and by the aid of additional machines, the supply of additional impressions is

The Walter Press is not a monopoly. It is manufactured at The Times office, and is supplied to all comers.

Among the other daily papers printed by its means in this country are the Daily News, the Scotsmam, and the

Birmingham Daily Post. The first Walter Press was sent to America in 1872, where it was employed to print

the Missouri Republican at St. Louis, the leading newspaper of the Mississippi Valley. An engineer and a

skilled workman from The Times office accompanied the machinery. On arriving at St. Louisthe materials

were unpacked, lowered into the machineroom, where they were erected and ready for work in the short

The Walter Press was an object of great interest at the Centennial Exhibition held at Philadelphia in 1876,

where it was shown printing the New Fork Times one of the most influential journals in America. The press

was surrounded with crowds of visitors intently watching its perfect and regular action, "like a thing of life."

The New York Times said of it: "The Walter Press is the most perfect printing press yet known to man;

invented by the most powerful journal of the Old World, and adopted as the very best press to be had for its

purposes by the most influential journal of the New World.... It is an honour to Great Britain to have such an

exhibit in her display, and a lasting benefit to the printing business, especially to newspapers.... The first

printing press run by steam was erected in the year 1814 in the office of The Times by the father of him who

is the present proprietor of that worldfamous journal. The machine of 1814 was described in The Times of

the 29th November in that year, and the account given of it closed in these words: 'The whole of these

complicated acts is performed with such a velocity and simultaneonsness of movement that no less than 1100

sheets are impressed in one hour.' Mirabile dictu! And the Walter Press of today can run off 17,000 copies

It is unnecessary to say more about this marvellous machine. Its completion forms the crown of the industry

[1] Diary, Reminiscences, and Correspondence of Henry Crabb Robinson, BarristeratLaw, F.S.A., i. 231.

[2] After the appearance of my article on the Koenig and Walter Presses in Macmillan's Magazine for

"In your very interesting article in Macmillan's Magazine on the subject of the printing machine, you have

unconsciously done me some injustice. To convince yourself of this, you have only to read the enclosed

paper. The case, however, will be strengthened when I tell you that as far back as the year 1856, that is, seven

years after the expiry of my patent, I pointed out to Mr. Mowbray Morris, the manager of The Times, the

fitness of my machine for the printing of that journal, and the fact that serious difficulties to its adoption had

been removed. I also, at his request, furnished him with a copy of the document with which I now trouble

you. Feeling sure that you would like to know the truth on any subject of which you may treat, I should be

glad to explain the matter more fully, and for this purpose will, with your permission, call upon you at any

On further enquiry I obtained the Patent No. 6762; but found that nothing practical had ever come of it. The

pamphlet enclosed by Sir Rowland Hill in the above letter is entitled 'The Rotary Printing Machine.' It is very

clever and ingenious, like everything he did. But it was still left for some one else to work out the invention

into a practical working printingpress. The subject is fully referred to in the 'Life of Sir Rowland Hill' (i.

224,525). In his final word on the subject, Sir Rowland "gladly admits the enormous difficulty of bringing a

complex machine into practical use," a difficulty, he says, which "has been most successfully overcome by

Steam has proved as useful and potent in the printing of books as in the printing of newspapers. Down to the

end of last century, "the divine art," as printing was called, had made comparatively little progress. That is to

say, although books could be beautifully printed by hand labour, they could not be turned out in any large

The early printing press was rude. It consisted of a table, along which the forme of type, furnished with a

tympan and frisket, was pushed by hand. The platen worked vertically between standards, and was brought

down for the impression, and raised after it, by a common screw, worked by a bar handle. The inking was

performed by balls covered with skin pelts; they were blacked with ink, and beaten down on the type by the

In 1798, Earl Stanhope perfected the press that bears his name. He did not patent it, but made his invention

over to the public. In 1818, Mr. Cowper greatly improved the inking of formes used in the Stanhope and

other presses, by the use of a hand roller covered with a composition of glue and treacle, in combination with

a distributing table. The ink was thus applied in a more even manner, and with a considerable decrease of

labour. With the Stanhope Press, printing was as far advanced as it could possibly be by means of hand

But this, after all, was a very small result. When books could be produced so slowly, there could be no

popular literature. Books were still articles for the few, instead of for the many. Steam power, however,

completely altered the state of affairs. When Koenig invented his steam press, he showed by the printing of

Clarkson's 'Life of Penn' the first sheets ever printed with a cylindrical pressthat books might be printed

neatly, as well as cheaply, by the new machine. Mr. Bensley continued the process, after Koenig left

England; and in 1824, according to Johnson in his 'Typographia,' his son was "driving an extensive business."

In the following year, 1825, Archibald Constable, of Edinburgh, propounded his plan for revolutionising the

art of bookselling. Instead of books being articles of luxury, he proposed to bring them into general

consumption. He would sell them, not by thousands, but by hundreds of thousands, "ay, by millions;" and he

would accomplish this by the new methods of multiplicationby machine printing and by steam power. Mr.

Constable accordingly issued a library of excellent books; and, although he was ruinednot by this

enterprise, but the other speculations into which he enteredhe set the example which other enterprising

minds were ready to follow. Amongst these was Charles Knight, who set the steam presses of William

Clowes to work, for the purposes of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.

William Clowes was the founder of the vast printing establishment from which these sheets are issued; and

his career furnishes another striking illustration of the force of industry and character. He was born on the 1st

of January, 1779. His father was educated at Oxford, and kept a large school at Chichester; but dying when

William was but an infant, he left his widow, with straitened means, to bring up her family. At a proper age

William was bound apprentice to a printer at Chichester; and, after serving him for seven years, he came up

to London, at the beginning of 1802, to seek employment as a journeyman. He succeeded in finding work at a

small office on Tower Hill, at a small wage. The first lodgings he took cost him 5s. a week; but finding this

beyond his means he hired a room in a garret at 2s. 6d., which was as much as he could afford out of his

The first job he was put to, was the settingup of a large posterbilla kind of work which he had been

accustomed to execute in the country; and he knocked it together so expertly that his master, Mr. Teape, on

seeing what he could do, said to him, "Ah! I find you are just the fellow for me." The young man, however,

felt so strange in London, where he was without a friend or acquaintance, that at the end of the first month he

thought of leaving it; and yearned to go back to his native city. But he had not funds enough to enable him to

follow his inclinations, and he accordingly remained in the great City, to work, to persevere, and finally to

prosper. He continued at Teape's for about two years, living frugally, and even contriving to save a little

He then thought of beginning business on his own account. The small scale on which printing was carried on

in those days enabled him to make a start with comparatively little capital. By means of his own savings and

the help of his friends, he was enabled to take a little printingoffice in Villiers Street, Strand, about the end

of 1803; and there he began with one printing press, and one assistant. His stock of type was so small, that he

was under the necessity of working it from day to day like a banker's gold. When his first job came in, he

continued to work for the greater part of three nights, setting the type during the day, and working it off at

night, in order that the type might be distributed for resetting on the following morning. He succeeded,

however, in executing his first job to the entire satisfaction of his first customer.

His business gradually increased, and then, with his constantly saved means, he was enabled to increase his

stock of type, and to undertake larger jobs. Industry always tells, and in the longrun leads to prosperity. He

married early, but he married well. He was only twentyfour when he found his best fortune in a good,

affectionate wife. Through this lady's cousin, Mr. Winchester, the young printer was shortly introduced to

important official business. His punctual execution of orders, the accuracy of his work, and the despatch with

which he turned it out soon brought him friends, and his obliging and kindly disposition firmly secured them.

Thus, in a few years, the humble beginner with one press became a printer on a large scale.

The small concern expanded into a considerable printingoffice in Northumberland Court, which was

furnished with many presses and a large stock of type. The office was, unfortunately, burnt down; but a larger

What Mr. Clowes principally aimed at, in carrying on his business, was accuracy, speed, and quantity. He did

not seek to produce editions de luxe in limited numbers, but large impressions of works in popular

demandtravels, biographies, histories, bluebooks, and official reports, in any quantity. For this purpose,

he found the process of handprinting too tedious, as well as too costly; and hence he early turned his

attention to book printing by machine presses, driven by steam power,in this matter following the example

of Mr. Walter of the Times, who had for some years employed the same method for newspaper printing.

Applegath Cowper's machines had greatly advanced the art of printing. They secured perfect inking and

printed on both sides, than by any other method. In 1823, accordingly, Mr. Clowes erected his first steam

presses, and he soon found abundance of work for them. But to produce steam requires boilers and engines,

the working of which occasions smoke and noise. Now, as the printingoffice, with its steam presses, was

situated in Northumberland Court, close to the palace of the Duke of Northumberland, at Charing Cross, Mr.

Clowes was required to abate the nuisance, and to stop the noise and dirt occasioned by the use of his

The case was tried in June, 1824, in the Court of Common Pleas. It was ludicrous to hear the extravagant

terms in which the counsel for the plaintiff and his witnesses described the nuisancethe noise made by the

engine in the underground cellar, some times like thunder, at other times like a thrashingmachine, and then

again like the rumbling of carts and waggons. The printer had retained the Attorneygeneral, Mr. Copley,

afterwards Lord Lyndhurst, who conducted his case with surpassing ability. The crossexamination of a

foreign artist, employed by the Duke to repaint some portraits of the Cornaro family by Titian, is said to have

been one of the finest things on record. The sly and pungent humour, and the banter with which the counsel

derided and laughed down this witness, were inimitable. The printer won his case; but he eventually

consented to remove his steam presses from the neighbourhood, on the Duke paying him a certain sum to be

It happened, about this period, that a sort of murrain fell upon the London publishers. After the failure of

Constable at Edinburgh, they came down one after another, like a pack of cards. Authors are not the only

people who lose labour and money by publishers; there are also cases where publishers are ruined by authors.

Printers also now lost heavily. In one week, Mr. Clowes sustained losses through the failure of London

publishers to the extent of about 25,000L. Happily, the large sum which the arbitrators awarded him for the

removal of his printing presses enabled him to tide over the difficulty; he stood his ground unshaken, and his

In the following year Mr. Clowes removed to Duke Street, Blackfriars, to premises until then occupied by

Mr. Applegath, as a printer; and much more extensive buildings and offices were now erected. There his

business transactions assumed a form of unprecedented magnitude, and kept pace with the great demand for

popular information which set in with such force about fifty years ago. In the course of ten yearsas we find

from the 'Encyclopaedia Metropolitana'there were twenty of Applegath Cowper's machines, worked by

two fivehorse engines. From these presses were issued the numerous admirable volumes and publications of

the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; the treatises on 'Physiology,' by Roget, and 'Animal

Mechanics,' by Charles Bell; the 'Elements of Physics,' by Neill Arnott; 'The Pursuit of Knowledge under

Difficulties,' by G. L. Craik, a most fascinating book; the Library of Useful Knowledge; the 'Penny

Magazine,' the first illustrated publication; and the 'Penny Cyclopaedia,' that admirable compendium of

These publications were of great value. Some of them were printed in unusual numbers. The 'Penny

Magazine,' of which Charles Knight was editor, was perhaps too good, because it was too scientific.

Nevertheless, it reached a circulation of 200,000 copies. The 'Penny Cyclopaedia' was still better. It was

original, and yet cheap. The articles were written by the best men that could be found in their special

departments of knowledge. The sale was originally 75,000 weekly; but, as the plan enlarged, the price was

increased from 1d. to 2d., and then to 4d. At the end of the second year, the circulation had fallen to 44,000;

It was unfortunate for Mr. Knight to be so much under the influence of his Society. Had the Cyclopaedia been

under his own superintendence, it would have founded his fortune. As it was, he lost over 30,000L. by the

venture. The 'Penny Magazine' also went down in circulation, until it became a nonpaying publication, and

then it was discontinued. It is curious to contrast the fortunes of William Chambers of Edinburgh with those

of Charles Knight of London. 'Chambers's Edinburgh Journal' was begun in February, 1832, and the 'Penny

Chambers was perhaps shrewder than Knight. His journal was as good, though without illustrations; but he

contrived to mix up amusement with useful knowledge. It may be a weakness, but the public like to be

entertained, even while they are feeding upon better food. Hence Chambers succeeded, while Knight failed.

The 'Penny Magazine' was discontinued in 1845, whereas 'Chambers's Edinburgh Journal' has maintained its

popularity to the present day. Chambers, also, like Knight, published an 'Encyclopaedia,' which secured a

large circulation. But he was not trammelled by a Society, and the 'Encyclopaedia' has become a valuable

The publication of these various works would not have been possible without the aid of the steam printing

press. When Mr. Edward Cowper was examined before a Committee of the House of Commons, he said,

"The ease with which the principles and illustrations of Art might be diffused is, I think, so obvious that it is

hardly necessary to say a word about it. Here you may see it exemplified in the 'Penny Magazine.' Such

works as this could not have existed without the printing machine." He was asked, "In fact, the mechanic and

the peasant, in the most remote parts of the country, have now an opportunity of seeing tolerably correct

outlines of form which they never could behold before?" To which he answered, "Exactly; and literally at the

price they used to give for a song." "Is there not, therefore, a greater chance of calling genius into activity?"

"Yes," he said, "not merely by books creating an artist here and there, but by the general elevation of the taste

Mr. Clowes was always willing to promote deserving persons in his office. One of these rose from step to

step, and eventually became one of the most prosperous publishers in London. He entered the service as an

errandboy, and got his meals in the kitchen. Being fond of reading, he petitioned Mrs. Clowes to let him sit

somewhere, apart from the other servants, where he might read his book in quiet. Mrs. Clowes at length

entreated her husband to take him into the office, for "Johnnie Parker was such a good boy." He consented,

and the boy took his place at a clerk's desk. He was wellbehaved, diligent, and attentive. As he advanced in

years, his steady and steadfast conduct showed that he could be trusted. Young fellows like this always make

their way in life; for character invariably tells, not only in securing respect, but in commanding confidence.

Parker was promoted from one post to another, until he was at length appointed overseer over the entire

A circumstance shortly after occurred which enabled Mr. Clowes to advance him, though greatly to his own

inconvenience, to another important post. The Syndics of Cambridge were desirous that Mr. Clowes should

go down there to set their printingoffice in order; they offered him 400L. a year if he would only appear

occasionally, and see that the organisation was kept complete. He declined, because the magnitude of his own

operations had now become so great that they required his unremitting attention. He, however strongly

recommended Parker to the office, though he could ill spare him. But he would not stand in the young man's

way, and he was appointed accordingly. He did his work most effectually at Cambridge, and put the

As the 'Penny Magazine' and other publications of the Society of Useful Knowledge were now making their

appearance, the clergy became desirous of bringing out a religious publication of a popular character, and

they were in search for a publisher. Parker, who was well known at Cambridge, was mentioned to the Bishop

of London as the most likely person. An introduction took place, and after an hour's conversation with Parker,

the Bishop went to his friends and said, "This is the very man we want." An offer was accordingly made to

him to undertake the publication of the 'Saturday Magazine' and the other publications of the Christian

Knowledge Society, which he accepted. It is unnecessary to follow his fortunes. His progress was steady; he

eventually became the publisher of 'Fraser's Magazine' and of the works of John Stuart Mill and other

wellknown writers. Mill never forgot his appreciation and generosity; for when his 'System of Logic' had

been refused by the leading London publishers, Parker prized the book at its rightful value and introduced it

To return to Mr. Clowes. In the course of a few years, the original humble establishment of the Sussex

compositor, beginning with one press and one assistant, grew up to be one of the largest printingoffices in

the world. It had twentyfive steam presses, twentyeight handpresses, six hydraulic presses, and gave

direct employment to over five hundred persons, and indirect employment to probably more than ten times

that number. Besides the works connected with his printingoffice, Mr. Clowes found it necessary to cast his

own types, to enable him to command on emergency any quantity; and to this he afterwards added

stereotyping on an immense scale. He possessed the power of supplying his compositors with a stream of

new type at the rate of about 50,000 pieces a day. In this way, the weight of type in ordinary use became very

great; it amounted to not less than 500 tons, and the stereotyped plates to about 2500 tons the value of the

Mr. Clowes would not hesitate, in the height of his career, to have tons of type locked up for months in some

ponderous bluebook. To print a report of a hundred folio pages in the course of a day or during a night, or of

a thousand pages in a week, was no uncommon occurrence. From his gigantic establishment were turned out

not fewer than 725,000 printed sheets, or equal to 30,000 volumes a week. Nearly 45,000 pounds of paper

were printed weekly. The quantity printed on both sides per week, if laid down in a path of 22 1/4 inches

About the year l840, a Polish inventor brought out a composing machine, and submitted it to Mr. Clowes for

approval. But Mr. Clowes was getting too old to take up and push any new invention.

He was also averse to doing anything to injure the compositors, having once been a member of the craft. At

the same time he said to his son George, "If you find this to be a likely machine, let me know. Of course we

must go with the age. If I had not started the steam press when I did, where should I have been now?" On the

whole, the composing machine, though ingenious, was incomplete, and did not come into use at that time, nor

indeed for a long time after. Still, the idea had been born, and, like other inventions, became eventually

developed into a useful working machine. Composing machines are now in use in many printingoffices, and

the present Clowes' firm possesses several of them. Those in The Times newspaper office are perhaps the

Mr. Clowes was necessarily a man of great ability, industry, and energy. Whatever could be done in printing,

that he would do. He would never admit the force of any difficulty that might be suggested to his plans.

When he found a person ready to offer objections, he would say, "Ah! I see you are a difficultymaker: you

Mr. Clowes died in 1847, at the age of sixtyeight. There still remain a few who can recall to mind the giant

figure, the kindly countenance, and the gentle bearing of this "Prince of Printers," as he was styled by the

members of his craft. His life was full of hard and useful work; and it will probably be admitted that, as the

greatest multiplier of books in his day, and as one of the most effective practical labourers for the diffusion of

useful knowledge, his name is entitled to be permanently associated, not only with the industrial, but also

When Count Menabrea was Prime Minister of Italy, he caused a despatch to be prepared and issued to Italian

Consuls in all parts of the world, inviting them to collect and forward to him "biographical notices respecting

His object, in issuing the despatch, was to collect information as to the lives of his compatriots living abroad,

in order to bring out a book similar to 'Selfhelp,' the examples cited in which were to be drawn exclusively

from the lives of Italian citizens. Such a work, he intimated, "if it were once circulated among the masses,

could not fail to excite their emulation and encourage them to follow the examples therein set forth," while

"in the course of time it might exercise a powerful influence on the increased greatness of our country."

We are informed by Count Menabrea that, although no special work has been published from the

biographical notices collected in answer to his despatch, yet that the Volere e Potere ('Will is Power') of

Professor Lessona, issued a few years ago, sufficiently answers the purpose which he contemplated, and

furnishes many examples of the patient industry and untiring perseverance of Italians in all parts of the world.

Many important illustrations of life and character are necessarily omitted from Professor Lessona's interesting

work. Among these may be mentioned the subject of the following pages,a distinguished Italian who

entirely corresponds to Count Menabrea's descriptionone who, in the face of the greatest difficulties, raised

himself to an eminent public position, at the same time that he conferred the greatest benefits upon the

country in which he settled and carried on his industrial operations. We mean Charles Bianconi, and his

Charles Bianconi was born in 1786, at the village of Tregolo, situated in the Lombard Highlands of La

Brianza, about ten miles from Como. The last elevations of the Alps disappear in the district; and the great

plain of Lombardy extends towards the south. The region is known for its richness and beauty; the inhabitants

being celebrated for the cultivation of the mulberry and the rearing of the silkworm, the finest silk in

Lombardy being produced in the neighbourhood. Indeed, Bianconi's family, like most of the villagers,

Charles had three brothers and one sister. When of a sufficient age, he was sent to school. The Abbe Radicali

had turned out some good scholars; but with Charles Bianconi his failure was complete. The new pupil

proved a tremendous dunce. He was very wild, very bold, and very plucky; but he learned next to nothing.

Learning took as little effect upon him as pouring water upon a duck's back. Accordingly, when he left school

at the age of sixteen, he was almost as ignorant as when he had entered it; and a great deal more wilful.

Young Bianconi had now arrived at the age at which he was expected to do something for his own

maintenance. His father wished to throw him upon his own resources; and as he would soon be subject to the

conscription, he thought of sending him to some foreign country in order to avoid the forced service. Young

fellows, who had any love of labour or promptings of independence in them, were then accustomed to leave

home and carry on their occupations abroad. It was a common practice for workmen in the neighbourhood of

Como to emigrate to England and carry on various trades; more particularly the manufacture and sale of

Accordingly, Bianconi's father arranged with one Andrea Faroni to take the young man to England and

instruct him in the trade of printselling. Bianconi was to be Faroni's apprentice for eighteen months; and in

the event of his not liking the occupation, he was to be placed under the care of Colnaghi, a friend of his

father's, who was then making considerable progress as a printseller in London; and who afterwards

Bianconi made his preparations for leaving home. A little festive entertainment was given at a little inn in

Como, at which the whole family were present. It was a sad thing for Bianconi's mother to take leave of her

boy, wild though he was. On the occasion of this parting ceremony, she fainted outright, at which the young

fellow thought that things were assuming a rather serious aspect. As he finally left the family home at

Tregolo, the last words his mother said to him were these words which he never forgot: "When you

Besides Charles Bianconi, Faroni took three other boys under his charge. One was the son of a small village

innkeeper, another the son of a tailor, and the third the son of a flaxdealer. This party, under charge of the

Padre, ascended the Alps by the Val San Giacomo road. From the summit of the pass they saw the plains of

Lombardy stretching away in the blue distance. They soon crossed the Swiss frontier, and then Bianconi

found himself finally separated from home. He now felt, that without further help from friends or relatives, he

The party of travellers duly reached England; but Faroni, without stopping in London, took them over to

Ireland at once. They reached Dublin in the summer of 1802, and lodged in Temple Bar, near Essex Bridge. It

was some little time before Faroni could send out the boys to sell pictures. First he had the leaden frames to

cast; then they had to be trimmed and coloured; and then the picturesmostly of sacred subjects, or of public

charactershad to be mounted. The flowers; which were of wax, had also to be prepared and finished, ready

When Bianconi went into the streets of Dublin to sell his mounted prints, he could not speak a word of

English. He could only say, "Buy, buy!" Everybody spoke to him an unknown tongue. When asked the price,

he could only indicate by his fingers the number of pence he wanted for his goods. At length he learned a

little English,at least sufficient "for the road;" and then he was sent into the country to sell his

merchandize. He was despatched every Monday morning with about forty shillings' worth of stock, and

ordered to return home on Saturdays, or as much sooner as he liked, if he had sold all the pictures. The only

money his master allowed him at starting was fourpence. When Bianconi remonstrated at the smallness of the

amount, Faroni answered, "While you have goods you have money; make haste to sell your goods!"

During his apprenticeship, Bianconi learnt much of the country through which he travelled. He was

constantly making acquaintances with new people, and visiting new places. At Waterford he did a good trade

in small prints. Besides the Scripture pieces, he sold portraits of the Royal Family, as well as of Bonaparte

and his most distinguished generals. "Bony" was the dread of all magistrates, especially in Ireland. At

Passage, near Waterford, Bianconi was arrested for having sold a leaden framed picture of the famous French

Emperor. He was thrown into a cold guardroom, and spent the night there without bed, or fire, or food. Next

morning he was discharged by the magistrate, but cautioned that he must not sell any more of such pictures.

Many things struck Bianconi in making his first journeys through Ireland. He was astonished at the

dramdrinking of the men, and the pipesmoking of the women. The violent factionfights which took place

at the fairs which he frequented, were of a kind which he had never before observed among the pacific people

of North Italy. These factionfights were the result, partly of dramdrinking, and partly of the fighting mania

which then prevailed in Ireland. There were also numbers of crippled and deformed beggars in every

town,quarrelling and fighting in the streets,rows and drinkings at wakes,gambling, duelling, and

riotous living amongst all classes of the people,things which could not but strike any ordinary observer at

At the end of eighteen months, Bianconi's apprenticeship was out; and Faroni then offered to take him back

to his father, in compliance with the original understanding. But Bianconi had no wish to return to Italy.

Faroni then made over to him the money he had retained on his account, and Bianconi set up business for

himself. He was now about eighteen years old; he was strong and healthy, and able to walk with a heavy load

on his back from twenty to thirty miles a day. He bought a large case, filled it with coloured prints and other

articles, and started from Dublin on a tour through the south of Ireland. He succeeded, like most persons who

labour diligently. The curlyhaired Italian lad became a general favourite. He took his native politeness with

him everywhere; and made many friends among his various customers throughout the country.

Bianconi used to say that it was about this time when he was carrying his heavy case upon his back, weighing

at least a hundred poundsthat the idea began to strike him, of some cheap method of conveyance being

established for the accommodation of the poorer classes in Ireland. As he dismantled himself of his case of

pictures, and sat wearied and resting on the milestones along the road, he puzzled his mind with the thought,

"Why should poor people walk and toil, and rich people ride and take their ease? Could not some method be

devised by which poor people also might have the opportunity of travelling comfortably?"

It will thus be seen that Bianconi was already beginning to think about the matter. When asked, not long

before his death, how it was that he had first thought of starting his extensive Car establishment, he answered,

"It grew out of my back!" It was the hundred weight of pictures on his dorsal muscles that stimulated his

thinking faculties. But the time for starting his great experiment had not yet arrived.

Bianconi wandered about from town to town for nearly two years. The picturecase became heavier than

ever. For a time he replaced it with a portfolio of unframed prints. Then he became tired of the wandering

life, and in 1806 settled down at CarrickonSuir as a printseller and carver and gilder. He supplied himself

with goldleaf from Waterford, to which town he used to proceed by Tom Morrissey's boat. Although the

distance by road between the towns was only twelve miles, it was about twentyfour by water, in

consequence of the windings of the river Suir. Besides, the boat could only go when the state of the tide

permitted. Time was of little consequence; and it often took half a day to make the journey. In the course of

one of his voyages, Bianconi got himself so thoroughly soaked by rain and mud that he caught a severe cold,

which ran into pleurisy, and laid him up for about two months. He was carefully attended to by a good, kind

Business did not prove very prosperous at Carrickonsuir; the town was small, and the trade was not very

brisk. Accordingly, Bianconi resolved, after a year's ineffectual trial, to remove to Waterford, a more thriving

centre of operations. He was now twentyone years old. He began again as a carver and gilder; and as

business flowed in upon him, he worked very hard, sometimes from six in the morning until two hours after

midnight. As usual, he made many friends. Among the best of them was Edward Rice, the founder of the

"Christian Brothers" in Ireland. Edward Rice was a true benefactor to his country. He devoted himself to the

work of education, long before the National Schools were established; investing the whole of his means in the

Mr. Rice's advice and instruction set and kept Bianconi in the right road. He helped the young foreigner to

learn English. Bianconi was no longer a dunce, as he had been at school; but a keen, active, enterprising

fellow, eager to make his way in the world. Mr. Rice encouraged him to be sedulous and industrious, urged

him to carefulness and sobriety, and strengthened his religions impressions. The help and friendship of this

good man, operating upon the mind and soul of a young man, whose habits of conduct and whose moral and

religious character were only in course of formation, could not fail to exercise, as Bianconi always

acknowledged they did, a most powerful influence upon the whole of his after life.

Although "three removes" are said to be "as bad as a fire," Bianconi, after remaining about two years at

Waterford, made a third removal in 1809, to Clonmel, in the county of Tipperary. Clonmel is the centre of a

large corn trade, and is in water communication, by the Suir, with Carrick and Waterford. Bianconi,

therefore, merely extended his connection; and still continued his dealings with his customers in the other

towns. He made himself more proficient in the mechanical part of his business; and aimed at being the first

carver and gilder in the trade. Besides, he had always an eye open for new business. At that time, when the

war was raging with France, gold was at a premium. The guinea was worth about twentysix or

twentyseven shillings. Bianconi therefore began to buy up the hoardedup guineas of the peasantry. The

loyalists became alarmed at his proceedings, and began to circulate the report that Bianconi, the foreigner,

was buying up bullion to send secretly to Bonaparte! The country people, however, parted with their guineas

Bianconi's conduct was of course quite loyal in the matter; he merely bought the guineas as a matter of

The country people had a difficulty in pronouncing his name. His shop was at the corner of Johnson Street,

and instead of Bianconi, he came to be called "Bian of the Corner." He was afterwards known as "Bian."

Bianconi soon became well known after his business was established. He became a proficient in the carving

and gilding line, and was looked upon as a thriving man. He began to employ assistants in his trade, and had

three German gilders at work. While they were working in the shop he would travel about the country, taking

He still retained a little of his old friskiness and spirit of mischief. He was once driving a car from Clonmel to

Thurles; he had with him a large lookingglass with a gilt frame, on which about a fortnight's labour had

been bestowed. In a fit of exuberant humour he began to tickle the horse under his tail with a straw! In an

instant the animal reared and plunged, and then set off at a gallop down hill. The result was, that the car was

On another occasion, a man was carrying to Cashel on his back one of Bianconi's large lookingglasses. An

old woman by the wayside, seeing the oddlooking, unwieldy package, asked what it was; on which

Bianconi, who was close behind the man carrying the glass, answered that it was "the Repeal of the Union!"

The old woman's delight was unbounded! She knelt down on her knees in the middle of the road, as if it had

been a picture of the Madonna, and thanked God for having preserved her in her old age to see the Repeal of

But this little waywardness did not last long. Bianconi's wild oats were soon all sown. He was careful and

frugal. As he afterwards used to say, "When I was earning a shilling a day at Clonmel, I lived upon

eightpence." He even took lodgers, to relieve him of the charge of his household expenses. But as his means

grew, he was soon able to have a conveyance of his own. He first started a yellow gig, in which he drove

about from place to place, and was everywhere treated with kindness and hospitality. He was now regarded as

"respectable," and as a person worthy to hold some local office. He was elected to a Society for visiting the

Sick Poor, and became a Member of the House of Industry. He might have gone on in the same business,

winning his way to the Mayoralty of Clonmel, which he afterwards held; but that the old idea, which had first

sprung up in his mind while resting wearily on the milestones along the road, with his heavy case of pictures

by his side, again laid hold of him, and he determined now to try whether his plan could not be carried into

He had often lamented the fatigue that poor people had to undergo in travelling with burdens from place to

place upon foot, and wondered whether some means might not be devised for alleviating their sufferings.

Other people would have suggested "the Government!" Why should not the Government give us this, that,

and the other,give us roads, harbours, carriages, boats, nets, and so on. This, of course, would have been a

mistaken idea; for where people are too much helped, they invariably lose the beneficent practice of helping

themselves. Charles Bianconi had never been helped, except by advice and friendship. He had helped himself

The facts were patent to everybody. There was not an Irishman who did not know the difficulty of getting

from one town to another. There were roads between them, but no conveyances. There was an abundance of

horses in the country, for at the close of the war an unusual number of horses, bred for the army, were thrown

upon the market. Then a tax had been levied upon carriages, which sent a large number of jauntingcars out

The roads of Ireland were on the whole good, being at that time quite equal, if not superior, to most of those

in England. The facts of the abundant horses, the good roads, the number of unemployed outside cars, were

generally known; but until Bianconi took the enterprise in hand, there was no person of thought, or spirit, or

capital in the country, who put these three things together horses, roads, and cars and dreamt of remedying

It was left for our young Italian carver and gilder, a struggling man of small capital, to take up the enterprise,

and show what could be done by prudent action and persevering energy. Though the car system originally

"grew out of his back," Bianconi had long been turning the subject over in his mind. His idea was, that we

should never despise small interests, nor neglect the wants of poor people. He saw the mailcoaches

supplying the requirements of the rich, and enabling them to travel rapidly from place to place. "Then," said

he to himself, "would it not be possible for me to make an ordinary twowheeled car pay, by running as

When Mr. Wallace, chairman of the Select Committee on Postage, in 1838, asked Mr. Bianconi, "What

induced you to commence the car establishment?" his answer was, "I did so from what I saw, after coming to

this country, of the necessity for such cars, inasmuch as there was no middle mode of conveyance, nothing to

fill up the vacuum that existed between those who were obliged to walk and those who posted or rode. My

want of knowledge of the language gave me plenty of time for deliberation, and in proportion as I grew up

with the knowledge of the language and the localities, this vacuum pressed very heavily upon my mind, till at

last I hit upon the idea of running jauntingcars, and for that purpose I commenced running one between

What a happy thing it was for Bianconi and Ireland that he could not speak with facility,that he did not

know the language or the manners of the country! In his case silence was "golden." Had he been able to talk

like the people about him, he might have said much and done little, attempted nothing and consequently

achieved nothing. He might have got up a meeting and petitioned Parliament to provide the cars, and

subvention the car system; or he might have gone amongst his personal friends, asked them to help him, and

failing their help, given up his idea in despair, and sat down grumbling at the people and the Government.

But instead of talking, he proceeded to doing, thereby illustrating Lessona's maxim of Volere e potere. After

thinking the subject fully over, he trusted to selfhelp. He found that with his own means, carefully saved, he

could make a beginning; and the beginning once made, included the successful ending.

The beginning, it is true, was very small. It was only an ordinary jauntingcar, drawn by a single horse,

capable of accommodating six persons. The first car ran between Clonmel and Cahir, a distance of about

twelve miles, on the 5th of July, 1815a memorable day for Bianconi and Ireland. Up to that time the public

accommodation for passengers was confined to a few mail and day coaches on the great lines of road, the

fares by which were very high, and quite beyond the reach of the poorer or middleclass people.

People did not know what to make of Bianconi's car when it first started. There were, of course, the usual

prophets of disaster, who decided that it "would never do." Many thought that no one would pay

eighteenpence for going to Cahir by car when they could walk there for nothing? There were others who

thought that Bianconi should have stuck to his shop, as there was no connection whatever between

The truth is, the enterprise at first threatened to be a failure! Scarcely anybody would go by the car. People

preferred trudging on foot, and saved their money, which was more valuable to them than their time. The car

sometimes ran for weeks without a passenger. Another man would have given up the enterprise in despair.

But this was not the way with Bianconi. He was a man of tenacity and perseverance. What should he do but

start an opposition car? Nobody knew of it but himself; not even the driver of the opposition car. However,

the rival car was started. The races between the cardrivers, the free lifts occasionally given to passengers,

the cheapness of the fare, and the excitement of the contest, attracted the attention of the public. The people

took sides, and before long both cars came in full. Fortunately the "great big yallah horse" of the opposition

The people became accustomed to travelling. They might still walk to Cahir; but going by car saved their

legs, saved their brains, and saved their time. They might go to Cahir market, do their business there, and be

comfortably back within the day. Bianconi then thought of extending the car to Tipperary and Limerick. In

the course of the same year, 1815, he started another car between Clonmel, Cashel, and Thurles. Thus all the

principal towns of Tipperary were, in the first year of the undertaking, connected together by car, besides

It was easy to understand the convenience of the car system to business men, farmers, and even peasants.

Before their establishment, it took a man a whole day to walk from Thurles to Clonmel, the second day to do

his business, and the third to walk back again; whereas he could, in one day, travel backwards and forwards

between the two towns, and have five or six intermediate hours for the purpose of doing his business. Thus

Still carrying out his scheme, Bianconi, in the following year (1816), put on a car from Clonmel to

Waterford. Before that time there was no car accommodation between Clonmel and CarrickonSuir, about

halfway to Waterford; but there was an accommodation by boat between Carrick and Waterford. The

distance between the two latter places was, by road, twelve miles, and by the river Suir twentyfour miles.

Tom Morrissey's boat plied two days a week; it carried from eight to ten passengers at 6 1/2d. of the then

currency; it did the voyage in from four to five hours, and besides had to wait for the tide to float it up and

down the river. When Bianconi's car was put on, it did the distance daily and regularly in two hours, at a fare

The people soon got accustomed to the convenience of the cars. They also learned from them the uses of

punctuality and the value of time. They liked the openair travelling and the sidelong motion. The new cars

were also safe and wellappointed. They were drawn by good horses and driven by good coachmen.

Jauntingcar travelling had before been rather unsafe. The country cars were of a ramshackle order, and the

drivers were often reckless. "Will I pay the pike, or drive at it, plaise your honour?" said a driver to his

passenger on approaching a turnpikegate. Sam Lover used to tell a story of a cardriver, who, after driving

his passenger uphill and downhill, along a very bad road, asked him for something extra at the end of his

"Faith," said the driver, "its not putting me off with this ye'd be, if ye knew but all." The gentleman gave him

another shilling. "And now what do you mean by saying, 'if ye knew but all?'" "That I druv yer honor the last

Bianconi, to make sure of the soundness and safety of his cars, set up a workshop to build them for himself.

He could thus depend upon their soundness, down even to the linchpin itself. He kept on his carving and

gilding shop until his car business had increased so much that it required the whole of his time and attention;

and then he gave it up. In fact, when he was able to run a car from Clonmel to Waterford a distance of

He made Waterford one of the centres of his operations, as he had already made Clonmel. In 1818 he

established a car between Waterford and Ross, in the following year a car between Waterford and Wexford,

and another between Waterford and Enniscorthy. A few years later he established other cars between

Waterford and Kilkenny, and Waterford and Dungarvan. From these furthest points, again, other cars were

established in communication with them, carrying the line further north, east, and west. So much had the

travelling between Clonmel and Waterford increased, that in a few years (instead of the eight or ten

passengers conveyed by Tom Morrissey's boat on the Suir) there was horse and car power capable of

Bianconi did a great stroke of business at the Waterford election of 1826. Indeed it was the turning point of

his fortunes. He was at first greatly cramped for capital. The expense of maintaining and increasing his stock

of cars, and of foddering his horses was very great; and he was always on the lookout for more capital.

When the Waterford election took place, the Beresford party, then allpowerful, engaged all his cars to drive

the electors to the poll. The popular party, however, started a candidate, and applied to Bianconi for help. But

he could not comply, for his cars were all engaged. The morning after his refusal of the application, Bianconi

was pelted with mud. One or two of his cars and horses were heaved over the bridge.

Bianconi then wrote to Beresford's agent, stating that he could no longer risk the lives of his drivers and his

horses, and desiring to be released from his engagement. The Beresford party had no desire to endanger the

lives of the cardrivers or their horses, and they set Bianconi free. He then engaged with the popular party,

and enabled them to win the election. For this he was paid the sum of a thousand pounds. This access of

capital was greatly helpful to him under the circumstances. He was able to command the market, both for

horses and fodder. He was also placed in a position to extend the area of his car routes.

He now found time, amidst his numerous avocations, to get married! He was forty years of age before this

event occurred. He married Eliza Hayes, some twenty years younger than himself, the daughter of Patrick

Hayes, of Dublin, and of Henrietta Burton, an Englishwoman. The marriage was celebrated on the 14th of

February, 1827; and the ceremony was performed by the late Archbishop Murray. Mr. Bianconi must now

have been in good circumstances, as he settled two thousand pounds upon his wife on their marriageday.

His early married life was divided between his cars, electioneering, and Repeal agitationfor he was always

a great ally of O'Connell. Though he joined in the Repeal movement, his sympathies were not with it; for he

preferred Imperial to Home Rule. But he could never deny himself the pleasure of following O'Connell,

Let us give a picture of Bianconi now. The curlyhaired Italian boy had grown a handsome man. His black

locks curled all over his head like those of an ancient Roman bust. His face was full of power, his chin was

firm, his nose was finely cut and wellformed; his eyes were keen and sparkling, as if throwing out a

challenge to fortune. He was active, energetic, healthy, and strong, spending his time mostly in the open air.

He had a wonderful recollection of faces, and rarely forgot to recognise the countenance that he had once

seen. He even knew all his horses by name. He spent little of his time at home, but was constantly rushing

about the country after business, extending his connections, organizing his staff, and arranging the centres of

To return to the car arrangements. A line was early opened from Clonmel which was at first the centre of

the entire connectionto Cork; and that line was extended northward, through Mallow and Limerick. Then,

the Limerick car went on to Tralee, and from thence to Cahirciveen, on the southwest coast of Ireland. The

cars were also extended northward from Thurles to Roscrea, Ballinasloe, Athlone, Roscommon, and Sligo,

The cars interlaced with each other, and plied, not so much in continuous main lines, as across country, so as

to bring all important towns, but especially the market towns, into regular daily communication with each

other. Thus, in the course of about thirty years, Bianconi succeeded in establishing a system of internal

communication in Ireland, which traversed the main highways and crossroads from town to town, and gave

the public a regular and safe car accommodation at the average rate of a pennyfarthing per mile.

The traffic in all directions steadily increased. The first car used was capable of accommodating only six

persons. This was between Clonmel and Cahir. But when it went on to Limerick, a larger car was required.

The traffic between Clonmel and Waterford was also begun with a smallsized car. But in the course of a few

years, there were four largesized cars, travelling daily each way, between the two places. And so it was in

other directions, between Cork in the south; and Sligo and Strabane in the north and northwest; between

Bianconi first increased the accommodation of these cars so as to carry four persons on each side instead of

three, drawn by two horses. But as the two horses could quite as easily carry two additional passengers,

another piece was added to the car so as to carry five passengers. Then another fourwheeled car was built,

drawn by three horses, so as to carry six passengers on each side. And lastly, a fourth horse was used, and the

car was further enlarged, so as to accommodate seven, and eventually eight passengers on each side, with one

on the box, which made a total accommodation for seventeen passengers. The largest and heaviest of the long

cars, on four wheels, was called "Finn MacCoul's," after Ossian's Giant; the fast cars, of a light build, on two

wheels, were called "Faughaballagh," or "clear the way"; while the intermediate cars were named "Massey

When Bianconi's system was complete, he had about a hundred vehicles at work; a hundred and forty stations

for changing horses, where from one to eight grooms were employed; about a hundred drivers, thirteen

hundred horses, performing an average distance of three thousand eight hundred miles daily; passing through

twentythree counties, and visiting no fewer than a hundred and twenty of the principal towns and cities in

the south and west and midland counties of Ireland. Bianconi's horses consumed on an average from three to

four thousand tons of hay yearly, and from thirty to forty thousand barrels of oats, all of which were

Bianconi's carsor "The Bians"soon became very popular. Everybody was under obligations to them.

They greatly promoted the improvement of the country. People could go to market and buy or sell their goods

more advantageously. It was cheaper for them to ride than to walk. They brought the whole people of the

country so much nearer to each other. They virtually opened up about seventenths of Ireland to civilisation

and commerce, and among their other advantages, they opened markets for the fresh fish caught by the

fishermen of Galway, Clifden, Westport, and other places, enabling them to be sold throughout the country

on the day after they were caught. They also opened the magnificent scenery of Ireland to tourists, and

enabled them to visit Bantry Bay, Killarney, South Donegal, and the wilds of Connemara in safety, all the

Bianconi's service to the public was so great, and it was done with so much tact, that nobody had a word to

say against him. Everybody was his friend. Not even the Whiteboys would injure him or the mails he carried.

He could say with pride, that in the most disturbed times his cars had never been molested. Even during the

Whiteboy insurrection, though hundreds of people were on the roads at night, the traffic went on without

interference. At the meeting of the British Association in 1857, Bianconi said: "My conveyances, many of

them carrying very important mails, have been travelling during all hours of the day and night, often in lonely

and unfrequented places; and during the long period of fortytwo years that my establishment has been in

existence, the slightest injury has never been done by the people to my property, or that entrusted to my care;

and this fact gives me greater pleasure than any pride I might feel in reflecting upon the other rewards of my

Of course Bianconi's cars were found of great use for carrying the mails. The post was, at the beginning of his

enterprise, very badly served in Ireland, chiefly by foot and horse posts. When the first car was run from

Clonmel to Cahir, Bianconi offered to carry the mail for half the price then paid for "sending it alternately by

a mule and a bad horse." The post was afterwards found to come regularly instead of irregularly to Cahir; and

the practice of sending the mails by Bianconi's cars increased from year to year. Dispatch won its way to

popularity in Ireland as elsewhere, and Bianconi lived to see all the crossposts in Ireland arranged on his

The postage authorities frequently used the cars of Bianconi as a means of competing with the few existing

mailcoaches. For instance, they asked him to compete for carrying the post between Limerick and Tralee,

then carried by a mailcoach. Before tendering, Bianconi called on the contractor, to induce him to give in to

the requirements of the Post Office, because he knew that the postal authorities only desired to make use of

him to fight the coach proprietors. But having been informed that it was the intention of the Post Office to

discontinue the mailcoach whether Bianconi took the contract or not, he at length sent in his tender, and

He succeeded in performing the service, and delivered the mail much earlier than it had been done before.

But the former contractor, finding that he had made a mistake, got up a movement in favour of

reestablishing the mailcoach upon that line of road; and he eventually induced the postage authorities to

take the mail contract out of the hands of Bianconi, and give it back to himself, as formerly. Bianconi,

however, continued to keep his cars upon the road. He had before stated to the contractor, that if he once

started his cars, he would not leave it, even though the contract were taken from him. Both coach and car

therefore ran for years upon the road, each losing thousands of pounds. "But," said Bianconi, when asked

about the matter by the Committee on Postage in 1838, "I kept my word: I must either lose character by

breaking my word, or lose money. I prefer losing money to giving up the line of road."

Bianconi had also other competitors to contend with, especially from coach and car proprietors. No sooner

had he shown to others the way to fortune, than he had plenty of imitators. But they did not possess his rare

genius for organisation, nor perhaps his still rarer principles. They had not his tact, his foresight, his

knowledge, nor his perseverance. When Bianconi was asked by the Select Committee on Postage, "Do the

opposition cars started against you induce you to reduce your fares?" his answer was, "No; I seldom do. Our

fares are so close to the first cost, that if any man runs cheaper than I do, he must starve off, as few can serve

Bianconi was once present at a meeting of car proprietors, called for the purpose of uniting to put down a new

opposition coach. Bianconi would not concur, but protested against it, saying, "If car proprietors had united

against me when I started, I should have been crushed. But is not the country big enough for us all?" The

coach proprietors, after many angry words, threatened to unite in running down Bianconi himself. "Very

well," he said, "you may run me off the roadthat is possible; but while there is this" (pulling a flower out of

his coat) "you will not put me down." The threat merely ended in smoke, the courage and perseverance of

We have spoken of the principles of Mr. Bianconi. They were most honourable. His establishment might be

spoken of as a school of morality. In the first place, he practically taught and enforced the virtues of

punctuality, truthfulness, sobriety, and honesty. He also taught the public generally the value of time, to

which, in fact, his own success was in a great measure due. While passing through Clonmel in 1840, Mr. and

Mrs. S. C. Hall called upon Bianconi and went over his establishment, as well as over his house and farm, a

short distance from the town. The travellers had a very pressing engagement, and could not stay to hear the

story of how their entertainer had contrived to "make so much out of so little." "How much time have you?"

he asked. "Just five minutes." "The car," says Mr. Hall, "had conveyed us to the back entrance. Bianconi

instantly rang the bell, and said to the servant, 'Tell the driver to bring the car round to the front,' adding, 'that

will save one minute, and enable me to tell you all within the time.' This was, in truth the secret of his

But the success of Bianconi was also due to the admirable principles on which his establishment was

conducted. His drivers were noted as being among the most civil and obliging men in Ireland, besides being

pleasant companions to boot. They were careful, punctual, truthful, and honest; but all this was the result of

The drivers were taken from the lowest grades of the establishment, and promoted to higher positions

according to their respective merits as opportunity offered. "Much surprise," says Bianconi, "has often been

expressed at the high order of men connected with my car establishment and at its popularity; but parties thus

expressing themselves forget to look at Irish society with sufficient grasp. For my part, I cannot better

compare it than to a man merging to convalescence from a serious attack of malignant fever, and requiring

To attach the men to the system, as well as to confer upon them the due reward for their labour, he provided

for all the workmen who had been injured, worn out, or become superannuated in his service. The drivers

could then retire upon a full pension, which they enjoyed during the rest of their lives. They were also paid

their full wages during sickness, and at their death Bianconi educated their children, who grew up to

Every workman had thus a special interest in his own good conduct. They knew that nothing but

misbehaviour could deprive them of the benefits they enjoyed; and hence their endeavours to maintain their

Sobriety was, of course, indispensablea drunken cardriver being amongst the most dangerous of servants.

The drivers must also be truthful, and the man found telling a lie, however venial, was instantly dismissed.

Honesty was also strongly enforced, not only for the sake of the public, but for the sake of the men

themselves. Hence he never allowed his men to carry letters. If they did so, he fined them in the first instance

very severely, and in the second instance dismissed them. "I do so," he said, "because if I do not respect other

institutions (the Post Office), my men will soon learn not to respect my own. Then, for carrying letters during

the extent of their trip, the men most probably would not get money, but drink, and hence become dissipated

Thus truth, accuracy, punctuality, sobriety, and honesty being strictly enforced, formed the fundamental

principle of the entire management. At the same time, Bianconi treated his drivers with every confidence and

respect. He made them feel that, in doing their work well, they conferred a greater benefit on him and on the

When attending the British Association at Cork, Bianconi said that, "in proportion as he advanced his drivers,

he lowered their wages." "Then," said Dr. Taylor, the Secretary, "I wouldn't like to serve you." "Yes, you

would," replied Bianconi, "because in promoting my drivers I place them on a more lucrative line, where

Bianconi was as merciful to his horses as to his men. He had much greater difficulty at first in finding good

men than good horses, because the latter were not exposed to the temptations to which the former were

subject. Although the price of horses continued to rise, he nevertheless bought the best horses at increased

prices, and he took care not to work them overmuch. He gave his horses as well as his men their seventh

day's rest. "I find by experience," he said, "that I can work a horse eight miles a day for six days in the week,

easier than I can work six miles for seven days; and that is one of my reasons for having no cars, unless

Bianconi had confidence in men generally. The result was that men had confidence in him. Even the

Whiteboys respected him. At the close of a long and useful life he could say with truth, "I never yet attempted

to do an act of generosity or common justice, publicly or privately, that I was not met by manifold

By bringing the various classes of society into connection with each other, Bianconi believed, and doubtless

with truth, that he was the means of making them respect each other, and that he thereby promoted the

civilisation of Ireland. At the meeting of the social Science Congress, held at Dublin in 1861, he said: "The

state of the roads was such as to limit the rate of travelling to about seven miles an hour, and the passengers

were often obliged to walk up hills. Thus all classes were brought together, and I have felt much pleasure in

believing that the intercourse thus created tended to inspire the higher classes with respect and regard for the

natural good qualities of the humbler people, which the latter reciprocated by a becoming deference and an

anxiety to please and oblige. Such a moral benefit appears to me to be worthy of special notice and

Even when railways were introduced, Bianconi did not resist them, but welcomed them as "the great

civilisers of the age." There was, in his opinion, room enough for all methods of conveyance in Ireland. When

Captain Thomas Drummond was appointed UnderSecretary for Ireland in 1835, and afterwards chairman of

the Irish Railway Commission, he had often occasion to confer with Mr. Bianconi, who gave him every

assistance. Mr. Drummond conceived the greatest respect for Bianconi, and often asked him how it was that

he, a foreigner, should have acquired so extensive an influence and so distinguished a position in Ireland?

"The question came upon me," said Bianconi, "by surprise, and I did not at the time answer it. But another

day he repeated his question, and I replied, 'Well, it was because, while the big and the little were fighting, I

crept up between them, carried out my enterprise, and obliged everybody.'" This, however, did not satisfy Mr.

Drummond, who asked Bianconi to write down for him an autobiography, containing the incidents of his

early life down to the period of his great Irish enterprise. Bianconi proceeded to do this, writing down his past

history in the occasional intervals which he could snatch from the immense business which he still continued

personally to superintend. But before the "Drummond memoir" could be finished Mr. Drummond himself

had ceased to live, having died in 1840, principally of overwork. What he thought of Bianconi, however, has

been preserved in his Report of the Irish Railway Commission of 1838, written by Mr. Drummond himself, in

which he thus speaks of his enterprising friend in starting and conducting the great Irish car establishment:

"With a capital little exceeding the expense of outfit he commenced. Fortune, or rather the due reward of

industry and integrity, favoured his first efforts. He soon began to increase the number of his cars and

multiply routes, until his establishment spread over the whole of Ireland. These results are the more striking

and instructive as having been accomplished in a district which has long been represented as the focus of

unreclaimed violence and barbarism, where neither life nor property can be deemed secure. Whilst many

possessing a personal interest in everything tending to improve or enrich the country have been so misled or

inconsiderate as to repel by exaggerated statements British capital from their doors, this foreigner chose

Tipperary as the centre of his operations, wherein to embark all the fruits of his industry in a traffic peculiarly

exposed to the power and even to the caprice of the peasantry. The event has shown that his confidence in

"By a system of steady and just treatment he has obtained a complete mastery, exempt from lawless

intimidation or control, over the various servants and agents employed by him, and his establishment is

popular with all classes on account of its general usefulness and the fair liberal spirit of its management.

The success achieved by this spirited gentleman is the result, not of a single speculation, which might have

been favoured by local circumstances, but of a series of distinct experiments, all of which have been

When the railways were actually made and opened, they ran right through the centre of Bianconi's

longestablished systems of communication. They broke up his lines, and sent them to the right and left. But,

though they greatly disturbed him, they did not destroy him. In his enterprising hands the railways merely

changed the direction of the cars. He had at first to take about a thousand horses off the road, with

thirtyseven vehicles, travelling 2446 miles daily. But he remodelled his system so as to run his cars between

He also directed his attention to those parts of Ireland which had not before had the benefit of his

conveyances. And in thus still continuing to accommodate the public, the number of his horses and carriages

again increased, until, in 1861, he was employing 900 horses, travelling over 4000 miles daily; and in 1866,

when he resigned his business, he was running only 684 miles daily below the maximum run in 1845, before

His cars were then running to Dungarvan, Waterford, and Wexford in the southwest of Ireland; to Bandon,

Rosscarbery, Skibbereen, and Cahirciveen, in the south; to Tralee, Galway, Clifden, Westport, and Belmullet

in the west; to Sligo, Enniskillen, Strabane, and Letterkenny in the north; while, in the centre of Ireland, the

towns of Thurles, Kilkenny, Birr, and Ballinasloe were also daily served by the cars of Bianconi.

At the meeting of the British Association, held in Dublin in 1857, Mr. Bianconi mentioned a fact which, he

thought, illustrated the increasing prosperity of the country and the progress of the people. It was, that

although the population had so considerably decreased by emigration and other causes, the proportion of

travellers by his conveyances continued to increase, demonstrating not only that the people had more money,

but that they appreciated the money value of time, and also the advantages of the car system established for

Although railways must necessarily have done much to promote the prosperity of Ireland, it is very doubtful

whether the general passenger public were not better served by the cars of Bianconi than by the railways

which superseded them. Bianconi's cars were on the whole cheaper, and were always run en correspondence,

so as to meet each other; whereas many of the railway trains in the south of Ireland, under the competitive

system existing between the several companies, are often run so as to miss each other. The present working

of the Irish railway traffic provokes perpetual irritation amongst the Irish people, and sufficiently accounts for

the frequent petitions presented to Parliament that they should be taken in hand and worked by the State.

Bianconi continued to superintend his great car establishment until within the last few years. He had a

constitution of iron, which he expended in active daily work. He liked to have a dozen irons in the fire, all

redhot at once. At the age of seventy he was still a man in his prime; and he might be seen at Clonmel

helping, at busy times, to load the cars, unpacking and unstrapping the luggage where it seemed to be

inconveniently placed; for he was a man who could never stand by and see others working without having a

hand in it himself. Even when well on to eighty, he still continued to grapple with the immense business

involved in working a traffic extending over two thousand five hundred miles of road.

Nor was Bianconi without honour in his adopted country. He began his great enterprise in 1815, though it

was not until 1831 that he obtained letters of naturalisation. His application for these privileges was

supported by the magistrates of Tipperary and by the Grand Jury, and they were at once granted. In 1844 he

was elected Mayor of Clonmel, and took his seat as Chairman at the Borough Petty Sessions to dispense

The first person brought before him was James Ryan, who had been drunk and torn a constable's belt. "Well,

Ryan," said the magistrate, "what have you to say?" "Nothing, your worship; only I wasn't drunk." "Who tore

the constable's belt?" "He was bloated after his Christmas dinner, your worship, and the belt burst!" "You are

so very pleasant," said the magistrate, "that you will have to spend fortyeight hours in gaol."

He was reelected Mayor in the following year, very much against his wish. He now began to buy land, for

"land hunger" was strong upon him. In 1846 he bought the estate of Longfield, in the parish of Boherlahan,

county of Tipperary. It consisted of about a thousand acres of good land, with a large cheerful house

overlooking the river Suir. He went on buying more land, until he became possessor of about eight thousand

One of his favourite sayings was: "Money melts, but land holds while grass grows and water runs." He was

an excellent landlord, built comfortable houses for his tenantry, and did what he could for their improvement.

Without solicitation, the Government appointed him a justice of the peace and a Deputylientenant for the

county of Tipperary. Everything that he did seemed to thrive. He was honest, straightforward, loyal, and

On first taking possession of his estate at Longfield, he was met by a procession of the tenantry, who received

him with great enthusiasm. In his address to them, he said, amongst other things: "Allow me to impress upon

you the great importance of respecting the laws. The laws are made for the good and the benefit of society,

and for the punishment of the wicked. No one but an enemy would counsel you to outrage the laws. Above

all things, avoid secret and unlawful societies. Much of the improvement now going on amongst us is owing

to the temperate habits of the people, to the mission of my much respected friend, Father Mathew, and to the

advice of the Liberator. Follow the advice of O'Connell; be temperate, moral, peaceable; and you will

advance your country, ameliorate your condition, and the blessing of God will attend all your efforts."

Bianconi was always a great friend of O'Connell. From an early period he joined him in the Catholic

Emancipation movement. He took part with him in founding the National Bank in Ireland. In course of time

the two became more intimately related. Bianconi's son married O'Connell's granddaughter; and O'Connell's

nephew, Morgan John, married Bianconi's daughter. Bianconi's son died in 1864, leaving three daughters, but

no male heir to carry on the family name. The old man bore the blow of his son's premature death with

fortitude, and laid his remains in the mortuary chapel, which he built on his estate at Longfield.

In the following year, when he was seventyeight, he met with a severe accident. He was overturned, and his

thigh was severely fractured. He was laid up for six months, quite incapable of stirring. He was afterwards

able to get about in a marvellous way, though quite crippled. As his life's work was over, he determined to

retire finally from business; and he handed over the whole of his cars, coaches, horses, and plant, with all the

My youngest son met Mr. Bianconi, by appointment, at the Roman Catholic church at Boherlahan, in the

summer of 1872. Although the old gentleman had to be lifted into and out of his carriage by his two

menservants, he was still as activeminded as ever. Close to the church at Boherlahan is Bianconi's

mortuary chapel, which he built as a sort of hobby, for the last restingplace of himself and his family. The

first person interred in it was his eldest daughter, who died in Italy; the second was his only son. A beautiful

monument with a basrelief has been erected in the chapel by Benzoni, an Italian sculptor, to the memory of

"As we were leaving the chapel," my son informs me, "we passed a long Irish car containing about sixteen

people, the tenants of Mr. Bianconi, who are brought at his expense from all parts of the estate. He is very

popular with his tenantry, regarding their interests as his own; and he often quotes the words of his friend Mr.

Drummond, that 'property has its duties as well as its rights.' He has rebuilt nearly every house on his

"On our way home, the carriage stopped to let me down and see the strange remains of an ancient fort, close

by the roadside. It consists of a high grassgrown mound, surrounded by a moat. It is one of the socalled

Danish forts, which are found in all parts of Ireland. If it be true that these forts were erected by the Danes,

"The carriage entered a noble avenue of trees, with views of prettily enclosed gardens on either side. Mr.

Bianconi exclaimed, 'Welcome to the Carman's Stage!' Longfield House, which we approached, is a fine

oldfashioned house, situated on the river Suir, a few miles south of Cashel, one of the most ancient cities in

Ireland. Mr. Bianconi and his family were most hospitable; and I found him most lively and communicative.

He talked cleverly and with excellent choice of language for about three hours, during which I learnt much

"Like most men who have accomplished great things, and overcome many difficulties, Mr. Bianconi is fond

of referring to the past events in his interesting life. The acuteness of his conversation is wonderful. He hits

off a keen thought in a few words, sometimes full of wit and humour. I thought this very good: 'Keep before

the wheels, young man, or they will run over you: always keep before the wheels!' He read over to me the

memoir he had prepared at the suggestion of Mr. Drummond, relating to the events of his early life; and this

"He vividly remembered the parting from his mother, nearly seventy years ago, and spoke of her last words to

him: 'When you remember me, think of me as waiting at this window, watching for your return.' This led him

to speak of the great forgetfulness and want of respect which children have for their parents nowadays. 'We

"'It is strange,' said he, 'how little things influence one's mind and character. When I was a boy at Waterford, I

bought an old secondhand book from a man on the quay, and the maxim on its titlepage fixed itself deeply

on my memory. It was, "Truth, like water, will find its own level."' And this led him to speak of the great

influence which the example and instruction of Mr. Rice, of the Christian Brothers, had had upon his mind

and character. 'That religions institution,' said he, 'of which Mr. Rice was one of the founders, has now spread

itself over the country, and, by means of the instruction which the members have imparted to the poorer

ignorant classes, they have effected quite a revolution in the south of Ireland.'

"'I am not much of a reader,' said Mr. Bianconi; 'the best part of my reading has consisted in reading

waybills. But I was once complimented by Justice Lefroy upon my books. He remarked to me what a

wonderful education I must have had to invent my own system of bookkeeping. Yes,' said he, pointing to

his ledgers, 'there they are.' The books are still preserved, recording the progress of the great car enterprise.

They show at first the small beginnings, and then the rapid growththe tens growing to hundreds, and the

hundreds to thousandsthe ledgers and daybooks containing, as it were, the whole history of the

undertakingof each car, of each man, of each horse, and of each line of road, recorded most minutely.

"'The secret of my success,' said he, 'has been promptitude, fair dealing, and good humour. And this I will

add, what I have often said before, that I never did a kind action but it was returned to me tenfold. My cars

have never received the slightest injury from the people. Though travelling through the country for about

sixty years, the people have throughout respected the property intrusted to me. My cars have passed through

lonely and unfrequented places, and they have never, even in the most disturbed times, been attacked. That, I

think, is an extraordinary testimony to the high moral character of the Irish people.'

"'It is not money, but the genius of money that I esteem,' said Bianconi; 'not money itself, but money used as

And he himself has furnished in his own life the best possible illustration of his maxim He created a new

industry, gave employment to an immense number of persons, promoted commerce, extended civilisation;

About two years after the date of my son's visit, Charles Bianconi passed away, full of years and honours;

and his remains were laid beside those of his son and daughter, in the mortuary chapel at Boherlahan. He died

in 1875, in his ninetieth year. Well might Signor Henrico Mayer say, at the British Association at Cork in

1846, that "he felt proud as an Italian to hear a compatriot so deservedly eulogised; and although Ireland

might claim Bianconi as a citizen, yet the Italians should ever with pride hail him as a countryman, whose

[1] This article originally appeared in 'Good Words.' A biography of Charles Bianconi, by his daughter, Mrs.

Morgan John O'Connell, has since been published; but the above article is thought worthy of republication, as

its contents were for the most part taken principally from Mr. Bianconi's own lips.

[2] Minutes of Evidence taken before the Select Committee on Postage (Second Report), 1838, p. 284.

Further communications passed between my young friend, the Italian count, and his father; and the result was

that he accompanied me to Ireland, on the express understanding that he was to send home a letter daily by

post assuring his friends of his safety. We went together accordingly to Galway, up Lough Corrib to Cong

and Lough Mask; by the romantic lakes and mountains of Connemara to Clifden and Letterfrack, and through

the lovely pass of Kylemoor to Leenane; along the fiord of Killury; then on, by Westport and Ballina to

Sligo. Letters were posted daily by my young friend; and every day we went forwards in safety.

But how lonely was the country! We did not meet a single American tourist during the whole course of our

visit, and the Americans are the most travelling people in the world. Although the railway companies have

given every facility for visiting Connemara and the scenery of the West of Ireland, we only met one single

English tourist, accompanied by his daughter. The Bianconi long car between Clifden and Westport had been

taken off for want of support. The only persons who seemed to have no fear of Irish agrarianism were the

English anglers, who are ready to brave all dangers, imaginary or supposed, provided they can only kill a big

salmon! And all the rivers flowing westward into the Atlantic are full of fine fish. While at Galway, we

looked down into the river Corrib from the Upper Bridge, and beheld it literally black with the backs of

salmon! They were waiting for a flood to enable them to ascend the ladder into Lough Corrib. While there,

Galway is a declining town. It has docks, but no shipping; bonded warehouses, but no commerce. It has a

community of fishermen at Claddagh, but the fisheries of the bay are neglected. As one of the poor men of

the place exclaimed, "Poverty is the curse of Ireland." On looking at Galway from the Claddagh side, it seems

as if to have suffered from a bombardment. Where a roof has fallen in, nothing has been done to repair it. It

was of no use. The ruin has been left to go on. The mills, which used to grind homegrown corn, are now

unemployed. The corn comes ready ground from America. Nothing is thought of but emigration, and the best

people are going, leaving the old, the weak, and the inefficient at home. "The labourer," said the late

President Garfield, "has but one commodity to sellhis day's work, it is his sole reliance. He must sell it

today, or it is lost forever." And as the poor Irishman cannot sell his day's labour, he must needs emigrate

While at Galway, I read with interest an eloquent speech delivered by Mr. Parnell at the banquet held in the

Great Hall of the Exhibition at Cork. Mr. Parnell asked, with much reason, why manufactures should not be

established and encouraged in the South of Ireland, as in other parts of the country. Why should not capital be

invested, and factories and workshops developed, through the length and breadth of the kingdom? "I

confess," he said, "I should like to give Ireland a fair opportunity of working her home manufactures. We can

each one of us do much to revive the ancient name of our nation in those industrial pursuits which have done

so much to increase and render glorious those greater nations by the side of which we live. I trust that before

many years are over we shall have the honour and pleasure of meeting in even a more splendid palace than

this, and of seeing in the interval that the quickwitted genius of the Irish race has profited by the lessons

which this beautiful Exhibition must undoubtedly teach, and that much will have been done to make our

Mr. Parnell, in the course of his speech, referred to the manufactures which had at one time flourished in

Irelandto the flannels of Rathdrum, the linens of Bandon, the cottons of Cork, and the gloves of Limerick.

Why should not these things exist again? "We have a people who are by nature quick and facile to learn, who

have shown in many other countries that they are industrious and laborious, and who have not been

excelled whether in the pursuits of agriculture under a midday sun in the field, or amongst the vast looms

in the factory districtsby the people of any country on the face of the globe."[1] Most just and eloquent!

The only weak point in Mr. Parnell's speech was where he urged his audience "not to use any article of the

manufacture of any other country except Ireland, where you can get up an Irish manufacture." The true

remedy is to make Irish articles of the best and cheapest, and they will be bought, not only by the Irish, but by

the English and people of all nations. Manufactures cannot be "boycotted." They will find their way into all

lands, in spite even of the most restrictive tariffs. Take, for instance, the case of Belfast hereafter to be

referred to. If the manufacturing population of that town were to rely for their maintenance on the demand for

their productions at home, they would simply starve. But they make the best and the cheapest goods of their

There is an abundant scope for the employment of capital and skilled labour in Ireland. During the last few

years land has been falling rapidly out of cultivation. The area under cereal crops has accordingly

considerably decreased.[2] Since 1868, not less than 400,000 acres have been disused for this purpose.[3]

Wheat can be bought better and cheaper in America, and imported into Ireland ground into flour. The

consequence is, that the men who worked the soil, as well as the men who ground the corn, are thrown out of

employment, and there is nothing left for them but subsistence upon the poorrates, emigration to other

Ireland is by no means the "poor Ireland" that she is commonly supposed to be. The last returns of the

PostmasterGeneral show that she is growing in wealth. Irish thrift has been steadily at work during the last

twenty years. Since the establishment of the Post Office Savings Banks, in 1861, the deposits have annually

increased in value. At the end of 1882, more than two millions sterling had been deposited in these banks,

and every county participated in the increase.[4] The largest accumulations were in the counties of Dublin,

Antrim, Cork, Down, Tipperary, and Tyrone, in the order named. Besides this amount, the sum of

2,082,413L. was due to depositors in the ordinary Savings Banks on the 20th of November, 1882; or, in all,

more than four millions sterling, the deposits of small capitalists. At Cork, at the end of last year, it was found

that the total deposits made in the savings bank had been 76,000L, or an increase of 6,675L. over the

preceding twelve months. But this is not all. The Irish middle classes are accustomed to deposit most of their

savings in the Joint Stock banks; and from the returns presented to the Lord Lieutenant, dated the 31st of

January, 1883, we find that these had been more than doubled in twenty years, the deposits and cash balances

having increased from 14,389,000L. at the end of 1862, to 32,746,000L. at the end of 1882. During the last

year they had increased by the sum of 2,585,000L. "So large an increase in bank deposits and cash balances,"

says the Report, "is highly satisfactory." It may be added that the investments in Government and India

Stock, on which dividends were paid at the Bank of Ireland, at the end of 1882, amounted to not less than

It is proper that Ireland should be bountiful with her increasing means. It has been stated that during the last

eighteen years her people have contributed not less than six millions sterling for the purpose of building

places of worship, convents, schools, and colleges, in connection with the Roman Catholic Church, not to

It would be equally proper if some of the saved surplus capital of Ireland, as suggested by Mr. Parnell, were

invested in the establishment of Irish manufactures. This would not only give profitable occupation to the

unemployed, but enable Ireland to become an increasingly exporting nation. We are informed by an Irish

banker, that there is abundance of money to be got in Ireland for any industry which has a reasonable chance

of success. One thing, however, is certain: there must be perfect safety. An old writer has said that

"Government is a badge of lost innocence: the palaces of kings are built upon the ruins of the bowers of

paradise." The main use of government is protection against the weaknesses and selfishness of human nature.

If there be no protection for life, liberty, property, and the fruits of accumulated industry, government

becomes comparatively useless, and society is driven back upon its first principles.

Capital is the most sensitive of all things. It flies turbulence and strife, and thrives only in security and

freedom. It must have complete safety. If tampered with by restrictive laws, or hampered by combinations, it

suddenly disappears. "The age of glory of a nation," said Sir Humphry Davy, "is the age of its security. The

same dignified feeling which urges men to gain a dominion over nature will preserve them from the dominion

of slavery. Natural, and moral, and religions knowledge, are of one family; and happy is the country and great

Dublin was once celebrated for its shipbuilding, its timbertrade, its iron manufactures, and its

steamprinting; Limerick was celebrated for its gloves; Kilkenny for its blankets; Bandon for its woollen and

linen manufactures. But most of these trades were banished by strikes.[5] Dr. Doyle stated before the Irish

Committee of 1830, that the almost total extinction of the Kilkenny blankettrade was attributable to the

combinations of the weavers; and O'Connell admitted that Trades Unions had wrought more evil to Ireland

than absenteeism and Saxon maladministration. But working men have recently become more prudent and

thrifty; and it is believed that under the improved system of moderate counsel, and arbitration between

employers and employed, a more hopeful issue is likely to attend the future of such enterprises.

Another thing is clear. A country may be levelled down by idleness and ignorance; it can only be levelled up

by industry and intelligence. It is easy to pull down; it is very difficult to build up. The hands that cannot

erect a hovel may demolish a palace. We have but to look to Switzerland to see what a country may become

which mixes its industry with its brains. That little land has no coal, no seaboard by which she can introduce

it, and is shut off from other countries by lofty mountains, as well as by hostile tariffs; and yet Switzerland is

one of the most prosperous nations in Europe, because governed and regulated by intelligent industry. Let

Ireland is a much richer country by nature than is generally supposed. In fact, she has not yet been properly

explored. There is copperore in Wicklow, Waterford, and Cork. The Leitrim ironores are famous for their

riches; and there is good ironstone in Kilkenny, as well as in Ulster. The Connaught ores are mixed with

coalbeds. Kaolin, porcelain clay, and coarser clay, abound; but it is only at Belleek that it has been

employed in the pottery manufacture. But the sea about Ireland is still less explored than the land. All round

the Atlantic seaboard of the Irish coast are shoals of herring and mackerel, which might be food for men, but

In the daily papers giving an account of the Cork Exhibition, appeared the following paragraph: "An

interesting exhibit will be a quantity of preserved herrings from Lowestoft, caught off the old head of

Kinsale, and returned to Cork after undergoing a preserving process in England."[6] Fish caught off the coast

of Ireland by English fishermen, taken to England and cured, and then "returned to Cork" for exhibition! Here

is an opening for patriotic Irishmen. Why not catch and preserve the fish at home, and get the entire benefit of

the fish traffic? Will it be believed that there is probably more money value in the seas round Ireland than

there is in the land itself? This is actually the case with the sea round the county of Aberdeen.[7]

A vast source of wealth lies at the very doors of the Irish people. But the harvest of an ocean teeming with

life is allowed to pass into other hands. The majority of the boats which take part in the fishery at Kinsale are

from the little island of Man, from Cornwall, from France, and from Scotland. The fishermen catch the fish,

salt them, and carry them or send them away. While the Irish boats are diminishing in number, those of the

strangers are increasing. In an East Lothian paper, published in May 1881, I find the following paragraph,

"Departure of Boats.In the early part of this week, a number of the boats here have left for the

herringfishery at Kinsale, in Ireland. The success attending their labours last year at that place and at Howth

It may not be generally known that Cockenzie is a little fishing village on the Firth of Forth, in Scotland,

where the fishermen have provided themselves, at their own expense, with about fifty decked fishingboats,

each costing, with nets and gear, about 500L. With these boats they carry on their pursuits on the coast of

Scotland, England, and Ireland. In 1882, they sent about thirty boats to Kinsale[8] and Howth. The profits of

their fishing has been such as to enable them, with the assistance of Lord Wemyss, to build for themselves a

convenient harbour at Port Seaton, without any help from the Government. They find that selfhelp is the

best help, and that it is absurd to look to the Government and the public purse for what they can best do for

The wealth of the ocean round Ireland has long been known. As long ago as the ninth and tenth centuries, the

Danes established a fishery off the western coasts, and carried on a lucrative trade with the south of Europe.

In Queen Mary's reign, Philip II. of Spain paid 1000L. annually in consideration of his subjects being allowed

to fish on the northwest coast of Ireland; and it appears that the money was brought into the Irish

Exchequer. In 1650, Sweden was permitted, as a favour, to employ a hundred vessels in the Irish fishery; and

the Dutch in the reign of Charles I. were admitted to the fisheries on the payment of 30,000L. In 1673, Sir W.

Temple, in a letter to Lord Essex, says that "the fishing of Ireland might prove a mine under water as rich as

The coasts of Ireland abound in all the kinds of fish in common usecod, ling, haddock, hake, mackerel,

herring, whiting, conger, turbot, brill, bream, soles, plaice, dories, and salmon. The banks off the coast of

Galway are frequented by myriads of excellent fish; yet, of the small quantity caught, the bulk is taken in the

immediate neighbourhood of the shores. Galway bay is said to be the finest fishing ground in the world; but

the fish cannot be expected to come on shore unsought: they must be found, followed, and netted. The

fishingboats from the west of Scotland are very successful; and they often return the fish to Ireland, cured,

which had been taken out of the Irish bays. "I tested this fact in Galway," says Mr. S. C. Hall. "I had ordered

fish for dinner; two salt haddocks were brought to me. On inquiry, I ascertained where they were bought, and

learned from the seller that he was the agent of a Scotch firm, whose boats were at that time loading in the

bay."[10] But although Scotland imports some 80,000 barrels of cured herrings annually into Ireland, that is

not enough; for we find that there is a regular importation of cured herrings, cod, ling, and hake, from

The fishing village of Claddagh, at Galway, is more decaying than ever. It seems to have suffered from a

bombardment, like the rest of the town. The houses of the fishermen, when they fall in, are left in ruins.

While the French, and English, and Scotch boats leave the coast laden with fish, the Claddagh men remain

emptyhanded. They will only fish on "lucky days," so that the Galway market is often destitute of fish,

while the Claddagh people are starving. On one occasion an English company was formed for the purpose of

fishing and curing fish at Galway, as is now done at Yarmouth, Grimsby, Fraserburgh, Wick, and other

places. Operations were commenced, but so soon as the English fishermen put to sea in their boats, the

Claddagh men fell upon them, and they were glad to escape with their lives.[12] Unfortunately, the Claddagh

men have no organization, no fixed rules, no settled determination to work, unless when pressed by necessity.

The appearance of the men and of their cabins show that they are greatly in want of capital; and fishing

cannot be successfully performed without a sufficiency of this industrial element.

Illustrations of this neglected industry might be given to any extent. Herring fishing, cod fishing, and pilchard

fishing, are alike untouched. The Irish have a strong prejudice against the pilchard; they believe it to be an

unlucky fish, and that it will rot the net that takes it. The Cornishmen do not think so, for they find the

pilchard fishing to be a source of great wealth. The pilchards strike upon the Irish coast first before they reach

Cornwall. When Mr. Brady, Inspector of Irish Fisheries, visited St. Ives a few years ago, he saw captured, in

Not long since; according to a northern local paper,[13] a large fleet of vessels in full sail was seen from the

west coast of Donegal, evidently making for the shore. Many surmises were made about the unusual sight.

Some thought it was the Fenians, others the Home Rulers, others the IrishAmerican Dynamiters. Nothing of

the kind! It was only a fleet of Scotch smacks, sixtyfour in number, fishing for herring between Torry Island

and Horn Head. The Irish might say to the Scotch fishermen, in the words of the Morayshire legend,

"Rejoice, O my brethren, in the gifts of the sea, for they enrich you without making any one else the poorer!"

But while the Irish are overlooking their treasure of herring, the Scotch are carefully cultivating it. The Irish

fleet of fishingboats fell off from 27,142 in 1823 to 7181 in 1878; and in 1882 they were still further

reduced to 6089.[14] Yet Ireland has a coastline of fishing ground of nearly three thousand miles in extent.

The bights and bays on the west coast of Irelandoff Erris, Mayo, Connemara, and Donegalswarm with

fish. Near Achill Bay, 2000 mackerel were lately taken at a single haul; and Clew Bay is often alive with fish.

In Scull Bay and Crookhaven, near Cape Clear, they are so plentiful that the peasants often knock them on

These swarms of fish might be a source of permanent wealth. A gentleman of Cork one day borrowed a

common rod and line from a Cornish miner in his employment, and caught fiftyseven mackerel from the

jetty in Scull Bay before breakfast. Each of these mackerel was worth twopence in Cork market, thirty miles

off. Yet the people round about, many of whom were short of food, were doing nothing to catch them, but

expecting Providence to supply their wants. Providence, however, always likes to be helped. Some people

forget that the Giver of all good gifts requires us to seek for them by industry, prudence, and

Some cry for more loans; some cry for more harbours. It would be well to help with suitable harbours, but the

system of dependence upon Government loans is pernicious. The Irish ought to feel that the very best help

must come from themselves. This is the best method for teaching independence. Look at the little Isle of

Man. The fishermen there never ask for loans. They look to their nets and their boats; they sail for Ireland,

catch the fish, and sell them to the Irish people. With them, industry brings capital, and forms the fertile

seedgronnd of further increase of boats and nets. Surely what is done by the Manxmen, the Cornishmen, and

the Cockenziemen, might be done by the Irishmen. The difficulty is not to be got over by lamenting about it,

or by staring at it, but by grappling with it, and overcoming it. It is deeds, not words, that are wanted.

Employment for the mass of the people must spring from the people themselves. Provided there is security

for life and property, and an absence of intimidation, we believe that capital will become invested in the

fishing industry of Ireland; and that the result will be peace, food, and prosperity.

We must remember that it is only of comparatively late years that England and Scotland have devoted so

much attention to the fishery of the seas surrounding our island. In this fact there is consolation and hope for

Ireland. At the beginning of the seventeenth century Sir Waiter Raleigh laid before the King his observations

concerning the trade and commerce of England, in which he showed that the Dutch were almost

monopolising the fishing trade, and consequently adding to their shipping, commerce, and wealth. "Surely,"

he says, "the stream is necessary to be turned to the good of this kingdom, to whose seacoasts alone God has

sent us these great blessings and immense riches for us to take; and that every nation should carry away out

of this kingdom yearly great masses of money for fish taken in our seas, and sold again by them to us, must

The Hollanders then had about 50,000 people employed in fishing along the English coast; and their industry

and enterprise gave employment to about 150,000 more, "by sea and land, to make provision, to dress and

transport the fish they take, and return commodities; whereby they are enabled yearly to build 1000 ships and

vessels." The prosperity of Amsterdam was then so great that it was said that Amsterdam was "founded on

herringbones." Tobias Gentleman published in 1614 his treatise on 'England's Way to win Wealth, and to

employ Ships and Marines,'[16] in which he urged the English people to vie with the Dutch in fishing the

seas, and thereby to give abundant employment, as well as abundant food, to the poorer people of the

"Look," he said, "on these fellows, that we call the plump Hollanders; behold their diligence in fishing, and

our own careless negligence!" The Dutch not only fished along the coasts near Yarmouth, but their fishing

vessels went north as far as the coasts of Shetland. What most roused Mr. Gentleman's indignation was, that

the Dutchmen caught the fish and sold them to the Yarmouth herringmongers "for ready gold, so that it

amounteth to a great sum of money, which money doth never come again into England." "We are daily

scorned," he says, "by these Hollanders, for being so negligent of our Profit, and careless of our Fishing; and

they do daily flout us that be the poor Fishermen of England, to our Faces at Sea, calling to us, and saying,

'Ya English, ya sall or oud scoue dragien;' which, in English, is this, 'You English, we will make you glad to

Another pamphlet, to a similar effect, 'The Royal Fishing revived,'[17] was published fifty years later, in

which it was set forward that the Dutch "have not only gained to themselves almost the sole fishing in his

Majesty's Seas; but principally upon this Account have very near beat us out of all our other most profitable

Trades in all Parts of the World." It was even proposed to compel "all Sorts of begging Persons and all other

poor People, all People condemned for less Crimes than Blood," as well as "all Persons in Prison for Debt,"

to take part in this fishing trade! But this was not the true way to force the traffic. The herring fishery at

Yarmouth and along the coast began to make gradual progress with the growth of wealth and enterprise

throughout the country; though it was not until 1787less than a hundred years agothat the Yarmouth

Before then, the fishing was all carried on along shore in little cobles, almost within sight of land. The native

fishery also extended northward, along the east coast of Scotland and the Orkney and Shetland Isles, until

now the herring fishery of Scotland forms one of the greatest industries in the United Kingdom, and gives

employment, directly or indirectly, to close upon half a million of people, or to oneseventh of the whole

Taking these facts into consideration, therefore, there is no reason to despair of seeing, before many years

have elapsed, a large development of the fishing industry of Ireland. We may yet see Galway the Yarmouth,

Achill the Grimsby, and Killybegs the Wick of the West. Modern society in Ireland, as everywhere else, can

only be transformed through the agency of labour, industry, and commerceinspired by the spirit of work,

and maintained by the accumulations of capital. The first end of all labour is security,security to person,

possession, and property, so that all may enjoy in peace the fruits of their industry. For no liberty, no

freedom, can really exist which does not include the first liberty of allthe right of public and private safety.

To show what energy and industry can do in Ireland, it is only necessary to point to Belfast, one of the most

prosperous and enterprising towns in the British Islands. The land is the same, the climate is the same, and

the laws are the same, as those which prevail in other parts of Ireland. Belfast is the great centre of Irish

manufactures and commerce, and what she has been able to do might be done elsewhere, with the same

amount of energy and enterprise. But it is not land, or climate, or altered laws that are wanted. It is men to

lead and direct, and men to follow with anxious and persevering industry. It is always the Man society wants.

The influence of Belfast extends far out into the country. As you approach it from Sligo, you begin to see that

you are nearing a place where industry has accumulated capital, and where it has been invested in cultivating

and beautifying the land. After you pass Enniskillen, the fields become more highly cultivated. The

drillrows are more regular; the hedges are clipped; the weeds no longer hide the crops, as they sometimes do

in the far west. The country is also adorned with copses, woods, and avenues. A new crop begins to appear in

the fieldsa crop almost peculiar to the neighbourhood of Belfast. It is a plant with a very slender erect

green stem, which, when full grown, branches at the top into a loose corymb of blue flowers. This is the flax

plant, the cultivation and preparation of which gives employment to a great number of persons, and is to a

The first appearance of the linen industry of Ireland, as we approach Belfast from the west, is observed at

Portadown. Its position on the Bann, with its water power, has enabled this town, as well as the other places

on the river, to secure and maintain their due share in the linen manufacture. Factories with their long

chimneys begin to appear. The fields are richly cultivated, and a general air of wellbeing pervades the

district. Lurgan is reached, so celebrated for its diapers; and the fields there about are used as

bleachinggreens. Then comes Lisburn, a populous and thriving town, the inhabitants of which are mostly

engaged in their staple trade, the manufacture of damasks. This was really the first centre of the linen trade.

Though Lord Strafford, during his government of Ireland, encouraged the flax industry, by sending to

Holland for flaxseed, and inviting Flemish and French artisans to settle in Ireland, it was not until the

Huguenots, who had been banished from France by the persecutions of Louis XIV., settled in Ireland in such

large numbers, that the manufacture became firmly established. The Crommelins, the Goyers, and the

As the traveller approaches Belfast, groups of houses, factories, and works of various kinds, appear closer

and closer; long chimneys over boilers and steamengines, and brick buildings three or four stories high;

large yards full of workmen, carts, and lorries; and at length we are landed in the midst of a large

manufacturing town. As we enter the streets, everybody seems to be alive. What struck William Hutton when

he first saw Birmingham, might be said of Belfast: "I was surprised at the place, but more at the people. They

possessed a vivacity I had never before beheld. I had been among dreamers, but now I saw men awake. Their

very step along the street showed alacrity. Every man seemed to know what he was about. The town was

large, and full of inhabitants, and these inhabitants full of industry. The faces of other men seemed tinctured

with an idle gloom; but here with a pleasing alertness. Their appearance was strongly marked with the modes

Some people do not like manufacturing towns: they prefer old castles and ruins. They will find plenty of

these in other parts of Ireland. But to found industries that give employment to large numbers of persons, and

enable them to maintain themselves and families upon the fruits of their labourinstead of living upon

poorrates levied from the labours of others, or who are forced, by want of employment, to banish

themselves from their own country, to emigrate and settle among strangers, where they know not what may

become of themis a most honourable and important source of influence, and worthy of every

Look at the wonderfully rapid rise of Belfast, originating in the enterprise of individuals, and developed by

"God save Ireland!" By all means. But Ireland cannot be saved without the help of the people who live in it.

God endowed men, there as elsewhere, with reason, will, and physical power; and it is by patient industry

only that they can open up a pathway to the enduring prosperity of the country. There is no Eden in nature.

The earth might have continued a rude uncultivated wilderness, but for human energy, power, and industry.

These enable man to subdue the wilderness, and develop the potency of labour. "Possunt quia credunt posse."

Belfast is a comparatively modern town. It has no ancient history. About the beginning of the sixteenth

century it was little better than a fishing village. There was a castle, and a ford to it across the Lagan. A

chapel was built at the ford, at which hurried prayers were offered up for those who were about to cross the

currents of Lagan Water. In 1575, Sir Henry Sydney writes to the Lords of the Council: "I was offered

skirmish by MacNeill Bryan Ertaugh at my passage over the water at Belfast, which I caused to be answered,

and passed over without losse of man or horse; yet by reason of the extraordinaire Retorne our horses

swamme and the Footmen in the passage waded very deep." The country round about was forest land. It was

so thickly wooded that it was a common saying that one might walk to Lurgan "on the tops of the trees."

In 1612, Belfast consisted of about 120 houses, built of mud and covered with thatch. The whole value of the

land on which the town is built, is said to have been worth only 5L. in fee simple.[19] "Ulster," said Sir John

Davies, "is a very desert or wilderness; the inhabitants thereof having for the most part no certain habitation

in any towns or villages." In 1659, Belfast contained only 600 inhabitants: Carrickfergus was more important,

and had 1312 inhabitants. But about 1660, the Long Bridge over the Lagan was built, and prosperity began to

dawn upon the little town. It was situated at the head of a navigable lough, and formed an outlet for the

manufacturing products of the inland country. Ships of any burden, however, could not come near the town.

The cargoes, down even to a recent date, had to be discharged into lighters at Garmoyle. Streams of water

made their way to the Lough through the mud banks; and a rivulet ran through what is now known as the

The population gradually increased. In 1788 Belfast had 12,000 inhabitants. But it was not until after the

Union with Great Britain that the town made so great a stride. At the beginning of the present century it had

about 20,000 inhabitants. At every successive census, the progress made was extraordinary, until now the

population of Belfast amounts to over 225,000. There is scarcely an instance of so large a rate of increase in

the British Islands, save in the exceptional case of Middlesborough, which was the result of the opening out

of the Stockton and Darlington Railway, and the discovery of ironstone in the hills of Cleveland in Yorkshire.

Dundee and Barrow are supposed to present the next most rapid increases of population.

The increase of shipping has also been equally great. Ships from other ports frequented the Lough for

purposes of trade; but in course of time the Belfast merchants supplied themselves with ships of their own. In

1791 one William Ritchie, a sturdy North Briton, brought with him from Glasgow ten men and a quantity of

shipbuilding materials. He gradually increased the number of his workmen, and proceeded to build a few

sloops. He reclaimed some land from the sea, and made a shipyard and graving dock on what was known as

Corporation Ground. In November 1800 the new graving dock, near the bridge, was opened for the reception

of vessels. It was capable of receiving three vessels of 200 tons each! In 1807 a vessel of 400 tons burthen

was launched from Mr. Ritchie's shipyard, when a great crowd of people assembled to witness the launching

of "so large a ship"far more than now assemble to see a 3000tonner of the White Star Line leave the slips

The shipbuilding trade has been one of the most rapidly developed, especially of late years. In 1805 the

number of vessels frequenting the port was 840; whereas in 1883 the number had been increased to 7508,

with about a million and ahalf of tonnage; while the gross value of the exports from Belfast exceeded

twenty millions sterling annually. In 1819 the first steamboat of 100 tons was used to tug the vessels up the

windings of the Lough, which it did at the rate of three miles an hour, to the astonishment of everybody.

Seven years later, the steamboat Rob Roy was put on between Glasgow and Belfast. But these vessels had

been built in Scotland. It was not until 1826 that the first steamboat, the chieftain, was built in Belfast, by the

same William Ritchie. Then, in 1838, the first iron boat was built in the Lagan foundry, by Messrs. Coates

and Young, though it was but a mere cockleshell compared with the mighty ocean steamers which are now

regularly launched from Queen's Island. In the year 1883 the largest shipbuilding firm in the town launched

thirteen vessels, of over 30,000 tons gross, while two other firms launched twelve ships, of about 10,000 tons

I do not propose to enter into details respecting the progress of the trades of Belfast. The most important is

the spinning of fine linen yarn, which is for the most part concentrated in that town, over 25,000,000 of

pounds weight being exported annually. Towards the end of the seventeenth century the linen manufacture

had made but little progress. In 1680 all Ireland did not export more than 6000L. worth annually. Drogheda

was then of greater importance than Belfast. But with the settlement of the persecuted Hugnenots in Ulster,

and especially through the energetic labours of Crommelin, Goyer, and others, the growth of flax was

sedulously cultivated, and its manufacture into linen of all sorts became an important branch of Irish industry.

In the course of about fifty years the exports of linen fabrics increased to the value of over 600,000L. per

It was still, however, a handicraft manufacture, and done for the most part at home. Flax was spun and yarn

was woven by hand. Eventually machinery was employed, and the turnout became proportionately large and

valuable. It would not be possible for hand labour to supply the amount of linen now turned out by the aid of

machinery. It would require three times the entire population of Ireland to spin and weave, by the old

spinningwheel and handloom methods, the amount of linen cloth now annually manufactured by the

operatives of Belfast alone. There are now forty large spinningmills in Belfast and the neighbourhood,

In the course of my visit to Belfast, I inspected the works of the York Street flaxspinning mills, founded in

1830 by the Messrs. Mulholland, which now give employment, directly or indirectly, to many thousand

persons. I visited also, with my young Italian friend, the admirable printing establishment of Marcus Ward

and Co., the works of the Belfast Ropework Company, and the shipbuilding works of Harland and Wolff.

There we passed through the roar of the iron forge, the clang of the Nasmyth hammer, and the intermittent

glare of the furnacesall telling of the novel appliances of modern shipbuilding, and the power of the

modern steamengine. I prefer to give a brief account of this latter undertaking, as it exhibits one of the

newest and most important industries of Belfast. It also shows, on the part of its proprietors, a brave

encounter with difficulties, and sets before the friends of Ireland the truest and surest method of not only

giving employment to its people, but of building up on the surest foundations the prosperity of the country.

The first occasion on which I visited Belfastthe reader will excuse the introduction of myselfwas in

1840; about fortyfour years ago. I went thither on the invitation of the late Wm. Sharman Crawford, Esq.,

M.P., the first prominent advocate of tenantright, to attend a public meeting of the Ulster Association, and to

spend a few days with him at his residence at Crawfordsburn, near Bangor. Belfast was then a town of

comparatively little importance, though it had already made a fair start in commerce and industry. As our

steamer approached the head of the Lough, a large number of labourers were observedwith barrows, picks,

and spadesscooping out and wheeling up the slob and mud of the estuary, for the purpose of forming what

is now known as Queen's Island, on the eastern side of the river Lagan. The work was conducted by William

Dargan, the famous Irish contractor; and its object was to make a straight artificial outletthe Victoria

Channelby means of which vessels drawing twentythree feet of water might reach the port of Belfast.

Before then, the course of the Lagan was tortuous and difficult of navigation; but by the straight cut, which

was completed in l846, and afterwards extended further seawards, ships of large burden were enabled to

reach the quays, which extend for about a mile below Queen's Bridge, on both sides of the river.

It was a saying of honest William Dargan, that "when a thing is put anyway right at all, it takes a vast deal of

mismanagement to make it go wrong." He had another curious saying about "the calf eating the cow's belly,"

which, he said, was not right, "at all, at all." Belfast illustrated his proverbial remarks. That the cutting of the

Victoria Channel was doing the "right thing" for Belfast, was clear, from the constantly increasing traffic of

the port. In course of time, several extensive docks and tidal basins were added; while provision was made, in

laying out the reclaimed land at the entrance of the estuary, for their future extension and enlargement. The

town of Belfast was by these means gradually placed in immediate connection by sea with the principal

western ports of England and Scotland,steamships of large burden now leaving it daily for Liverpool,

Glasgow, Fleetwood, Barrow, and Ardrossan. The ships entering the port of Belfast in 1883 were 7508, of

1,526,535 tonnage; they had been more than doubled in fifteen years. The town has risen from nothing, to

exhibit a Customs revenue, in 1883, of 608,781L., infinitely greater than that of Leith, the port of Edinburgh,

or of Hull, the chief port of Yorkshire. The population has also largely increased. When I visited Belfast in

1840, the town contained 75,000 inhabitants. They are now over 225,006, or more than trebled,Belfast

The spirit and enterprise of the people are illustrated by the variety of their occupations. They do not confine

themselves to one branch of business; but their energies overflow into nearly every department of industry.

Their linen manufacture is of worldwide fame; but much less known are their more recent enterprises. The

production of aerated waters, for instance, is something extraordinary. In 1882 the manufacturers shipped off

53,163 packages, and 24,263 cwts. of aerated waters to England, Scotland, Australia, New Zealand, and other

countries. While Ireland produces no wrought iron, though it contains plenty of ironstone,and Belfast has

to import all the iron which it consumes,yet one engineering firm alone, that of Combe, Barbour, and

Combe, employs 1500 highlypaid mechanics, and ships off its iron machinery to all parts of the world. The

printing establishment of Marcus Ward and Co. employs over 1000 highly skilled and ingenious persons, and

extends the influence of learning and literature into all civilised countries. We might add the various

manufactures of roofing felt (of which there are five), of ropes, of stoves, of stable fittings, of nails, of starch,

We prefer, however, to give an account of the last new industry of Belfastthat of shipping and

shipbuilding. Although, as we have said, Belfast imports from Scotland and England all its iron and all its

coal,[21] it nevertheless, by the skill and strength of its men, sends out some of the finest and largest

steamships which navigate the Atlantic and Pacific. It all comes from the power of individuality, and

furnishes a splendid example for Dublin, Cork, Waterford, and Limerick, each of which is provided by nature

with magnificent harbours, with fewer of those difficulties of access which Belfast has triumphed over; and

each of which might be the centre of some great industrial enterprise, provided only there were patriotic men

willing to embark their capital, perfect protection for the property invested, and men willing to work rather

It was not until the year 1853 that the Queen's Islandraked out of the mud of the sloblandwas first used

for shipbuilding purposes. Robert Hickson and Co. then commenced operations by laying down the Mary

Stenhouse, a wooden sailingship of 1289 tons register; and the vessel was launched in the following year.

The operations of the firm were continued until the year 1859, when the shipbuilding establishments on

Queen's Island were acquired by Mr. E. J. Harland (afterwards Harland and Wolff), since which time the

development of this great branch of industry in Belfast has been rapid and complete.

From the history of this firm, it will be found that energy is the most profitable of all merchandise; and that

the fruit of active work is the sweetest of all fruits. Harland and Wolff are the true Watt and Boulton of

Belfast. At the beginning of their great enterprise, their works occupied about four acres of land; they now

occupy over thirtysix acres. The firm has imported not less than two hundred thousand tons of iron; which

have been converted by skill and labour into 168 ships of 253,000 total tonnage. These ships, if laid close

The advantage to the wageearning class can only be shortly stated. Not less than 34 per cent. is paid in

labour on the cost of the ships turned out. The number of persons employed in the works is 3920; and the

weekly wages paid to them is 4000L., or over 200,000L. annually. Since the commencement of the

All this goes towards the support of the various industries of the place. That the working classes of Belfast

are thrifty and frugal may be inferred from the fact that at the end of 1882 they held deposits in the Savings

Bank to the amount of 230,289L., besides 158,064L. in the Post Office Savings Banks.[22] Nearly all the

better class working people of the town live in separate dwellings, either rented or their own property. There

are ten Building Societies in Belfast, in which industrious people may store their earnings, and in course of

The example of energetic, active men always spreads. Belfast contains two other shipbuilding yards, both the

outcome of Harland and Wolff's enterprise; those of Messrs. Macilwaine and Lewis, employing about four

hundred men, and of Messrs. Workman and Clarke, employing about a thousand. The heads of both these

firms were trained in the parent shipbuilding works of Belfast. There is do feeling of rivalry between the

In Plutarch's Lives, we are told that Themistocles said on one occasion, "'Tis true that I have never learned

how to tune a harp, or play upon a lute, but I know how to raise a small and inconsiderable city to glory and

greatness." So might it be said of Harland and Wolff. They have given Belfast not only a potency for good,

but a worldwide reputation. Their energies overflow. Mr. Harland is the active and everprudent Chairman

of the most important of the local boards, the Harbour Trust of Belfast, and exerts himself to promote the

extension of the harbour facilities of the port as if the benefits were to be exclusively his own; while Mr.

Wolff is the Chairman of one of the latest born industries of the place, the Belfast Ropework Company,

This lastmentioned industry is only about six years old. The works occupy over seven acres of ground, more

than six acres of which are under roofing. Although the whole of the raw material is imported from abroad

from Russia, the Philippine Islands, New Zealand, and Central Americait is exported again in a

Such is the contagion of example, and such the everbranching industries with which men of enterprise and

industry can enrich and bless their country. The following brief memoir of the career of Mr. Harland has been

furnished at my solicitation; and I think that it will be found full of interest as well as instruction.

[2] In 1883, as compared with 1882, there was a decrease of 58,022 acres in the land devoted to the growth of

wheat; there was a total decrease of 114,871 acres in the land under tillage.Agricultural Statistics, Ireland,

[4] The particulars are these: deposits in Irish Post Office Savings Banks, 31st December, 1882, 1,925,440; to

The increase of deposits over those made in the preceding year, were: in Dublin, 31,321L.; in Antrim,

[5] The only thriving manufacture now in Dublin is that of intoxicating drinksbeer, porter, stout, and

whisky. Brewing and distilling do not require skilled labour, so that strikes do not affect them.

[7] The valuation of the county of Aberdeen (exclusive of the city) was recently 866,816L., whereas the value

of the herrings (748,726 barrels) caught round the coast (at 25s. the barrel) was 935,907L., thereby exceeding

the estimated annual rental of the county by 69,091L. The Scotch fishermen catch over a million barrels of

[8] A recent number of Land and Water supplies the following information as to the fishing at Kinsale:

"The takes of fish have been so enormous and unprecedented that buyers can scarcely be found, even when,

as now, mackerel are selling at one shilling per six score. Piles of magnificent fish lie rotting in the sun.

The sides of Kinsale Harbour are strewn with them, and frequently, when they have become a little 'touched,'

whole boatloads are thrown overboard into the water. This great waste is to be attributed to scarcity of

hands to salt the fish and want of packingboxes. Some of the boats are said to have made as much as 500L.

this season. The local fishing company are making active preparations for the approaching herring fishery,

and it is anticipated that Kinsale may become one of the centres of this description of fishing."

[9] Statistical Journal for March 1848. Paper by Richard Valpy on "The Resources of the Irish Sea Fisheries,"

[11] The Commissioners of Irish Fisheries, in one of their reports, observe:"Notwithstanding the

diminished population, the fish captured round the coast is so inadequate to the wants of the population that

fully 150,000L. worth of ling, cod, and herring are annually imported from Norway, Newfoundland, and

Scotland, the vessels bearing these cargoes, as they approach the shores of Ireland, frequently sailing through

[12] The following examination of Mr. J. Ennis, chairman of the Midland and Great Western Railway, took

Mr. Ennis"of course it is, and we give it all the facilities that we can.... But the Galway fisheries, where

Mr. Ennis "I will endeavour to explain. I had occasion a few nights ago to speak to a gentleman in the

House of Commons with regard to an application to the Fishery Board for 2000L. to restore the pier at

Buffin, in Clew Bay, and I said, 'Will you join me in the application? I am told it is a place that swarms with

fish, and if we had a pier there the fishermen will have some security, and they will go out.' The only answer

I received was, 'They will not go out; they pay no attention whatever to the fisheries; they allow the fish to

Mr. Ayrton "Do you think that if English fishermen went to the west coast of Ireland they would be able to

Mr. Ennis "We know the fact to be, that some years ago, a company was established for the purpose of

trawling in Galway Bay, and what was the consequence? The Irish fishermen, who inhabit a region in the

neighbourhood of Galway, called Claddagh, turned out against them, and would not allow them to trawl, and

Sir Rowland Hill "Then they will neither fish themselves nor allow any one else to fish!"

[15] The Report of the Inspectors of Irish Fisheries on the Sea and Inland Fisheries of Ireland for 1882, gives

a large amount of information as to the fish which swarm round the Irish coast. Mr. Brady reports on the

abundance of herring and other fish all round the coast. Shoals of herrings "remained off nearly the entire

coast of Ireland from August till December." "Large shoals of pilchards" were observed on the south and

southwest coasts. Off Dingle, it is remarked, "the supply of all kinds of fish is practically inexhaustible."

"Immense shoals of herrings off Liscannor and Loop Head;" "the mackerel is always on this coast, and can be

captured at any time of the year, weather permitting." At Belmullet, "the shoals of fish off the coast,

particularly herring and mackerel, are sometimes enormous." The fishermen, though poor, are all very orderly

[18] See The Huguenots in England and Ireland. A Board of Traders, for the encouragement and promotion

of the hemp and flax manufacture in Ireland, was appointed by an Act of Parliament at the beginning of last

century (6th October, 1711), and the year after the appointment of the Board the following notice was placed

on the records of the institution: "Louis Crommelin and the Huguenot colony have been greatly

instrumental in improving and propagating the flaxen manufacture in the north of this Kingdom, and the

perfection to which the same is brought in that part of the country has been greatly owing to the skill and

industry of the said Crommelin." In a history of the linen trade, published at Belfast, it is said that "the dignity

which that enterprising man imparted to labour, and the halo which his example cast around physical

exertion, had the best effect in raising the tone of popular feeling, as well among the patricians as among the

peasants of the north of Ireland. This love of industry did much to break down the national prejudice in

favour of idleness, and cast doubts on the social orthodoxy of the idea then so popular with the squirearchy,

that those alone who were able to live without employment had any rightful claim to the distinctive title of

gentleman.... A patrician by birth and a merchant by profession, Crommelin proved, by his own life, his

example, and his enterprise, that an energetic manufacturer may, at the same time, take a high place in the

[20] From the Irish Manufacturers' Almanack for 1883 I learn that nearly onethird of the spindles used in

Europe in the linen trade, and more than onefourth of the powerlooms, belong to Ireland, that "the Irish

linen and associated trades at present give employment to 176,303 persons; and it is estimated that the capital

sunk in spinning and weaving factories, and the business incidental thereto, is about 100,000,000L., and of

[22] We are indebted to the obliging kindness of the Right Hon. Mr. Fawcett, PostmasterGeneral for this

return. The total number of depositors in the Post Office Savings banks in the Parliamentary borough of

Belfast is 10,827 and the amount of their deposits, including the interest standing to their credit, on the 31st

An important item in the savings of Belfast, not included in the above returns, consists in the amounts of

deposits made with the various Limited Companies, as well as with the thriving Building Societies in the

BY SIR E. J. HARLAND, ENGINEER AND SHIPBUILDER. "The useful arts are but reproductions or new

combinations by the art of man, of the same natural benefactors. He no longer waits for favouring gales, but

by means of steam he realises the fable of AEolus's bag, and carries the twoandthirty winds in the boiler of

his boat."Emerson. "The most exquisite and the most expensive machinery is brought into play where

operations on the most common materials are to be performed, because these are executed on the widest

scale. This is the meaning of the vast and astonishing prevalence of machine work in this country: that the

machine, with its million fingers, works for millions of purchasers, while in remote countries, where

magnificence and savagery stand side by side, tens of thousands work for one. There Art labours for the rich

alone; here she works for the poor no less. There the multitude produce only to give splendour and grace to

the despot or the warrior, whose slaves they are, and whom they enrich; here the man who is powerful in the

weapons of peace, capital, and machinery, uses them to give comfort and enjoyment to the public, whose

servant he is, and thus becomes rich while he enriches others with his goods."William Whewell, D.D.

I was born at Scarborough in May, 1831, the sixth of a family of eight. My father was a native of Rosedale,

halfway between Whitby and Pickering: his nurse was the sister of Captain Scoresby, celebrated as an

Arctic explorer. Arrived at manhood, he studied medicine, graduated at Edinburgh, and practised in

Scarborough until nearly his death in 1866. He was thrice Mayor and a Justice of the Peace for the borough.

Dr. Harland was a man of much force of character, and displayed great originality in the treatment of disease.

Besides exercising skill in his profession, he had a great love for mechanical pursuits. He spent his leisure

time in inventions of many sorts; and, in conjunction with the late Sir George Cayley of Brompton, he kept

In 1827 he invented and patented a steamcarriage for running on common roads. Before the adoption of

railways, the old stage coaches were found slow and insufficient for the traffic. A working model of the

steamcoach was perfected, embracing a multitubular boiler for quickly raising highpressure steam, with a

revolving surface condenser for reducing the steam to water again, by means of its exposure to the cold

draught of the atmosphere through the interstices of extremely thin laminations of copper plates. The entire

machinery, placed under the bottom of the carriage, was borne on springs; the whole being of an elegant

form. This model steamcarriage ascended with perfect ease the steepest roads. Its success was so complete

that Dr. Harland designed a fullsized carriage; but the demands upon his professional skill were so great that

he was prevented going further than constructing the pair of engines, the wheels, and a part of the boiler,all

of which remnants I still preserve, as valuable links in the progress of steam locomotion.

Other branches of practical sciencesuch as electricity, magnetism, and chemical cultivation of the

soilreceived a share of his attention. He predicted that three or four powerful electric lamps would yet light

a whole city. He was also convinced of the feasibility of an electric cable to New York, and calculated the

probable cost. As an example to the neighbourhood, he successfully cultivated a tract of moorland, and

When passing through Newcastle, while still a young man, on one of his journeys to the University at

Edinburgh, and being desirous of witnessing the operations in a coalmine, a friend recommended him to

visit Killingworth pit, where he would find one George Stephenson, a most intelligent workman, in charge.

My father was introduced to Mr. Stephenson accordingly; and after rambling over the underground workings,

and observing the pumping and winding engines in full operation, a friendship was made, which afterwards

proved of the greatest service to myself, by facilitating my being placed as a pupil at the great engineering

My mother was the daughter of Gawan Pierson, a landed proprietor of Goathland, near Rosedale. She, too,

was surprisingly mechanical in her tastes; and assisted my father in preparing many of his plans, besides

attaining considerable proficiency in drawing, painting, and modelling in wax. Toys in those days were poor,

as well as very expensive to purchase. But the nursery soon became a little workshop under her directions;

and the boys were usually engaged, one in making a cart, another in carving out a horse, and a third in cutting

out a boat; while the girls were making harness, or sewing sails, or cutting out and making perfect dresses for

their dollswhose houses were completely furnished with everything, from the kitchen to the attic, all made

It was in a house of such industry and mechanism that I was brought up. As a youth, I was slow at my

lessons; preferring to watch and assist workmen when I had an opportunity of doing so, even with the

certainty of having a thrashing from the schoolmaster for my neglect. Thus I got to know every workshop and

every workman in the town. At any rate I picked up a smattering of a variety of trades, which afterwards

proved of the greatest use to me. The chief of these was wooden shipbuilding, a branch of industry then

extensively carried on by Messrs. William and Robert Tindall, the former of whom resided in London; he

was one of the halfdozen great shipbuilders and owners who founded "Lloyd's." Splendid East Indiamen, of

some 1000 tons burden, were then built at Scarborough; and scarcely a timber was moulded, a plank bent, a

spar lined off, or launching shipways laid, without my being present to witness them. And thus, in course of

At that time, I attended the Grammar School. Of the rudiments taught, I was fondest of drawing, geometry,

and Euclid. Indeed, I went twice through the first two books of the latter before I was twelve years old. At

this age I was sent to the Edinburgh Academy, my eldest brother William being then a medical student at the

University. I remained at Edinburgh two years. My early progress in mathematics would have been lost in the

classical training which was then insisted upon at the academy, but for my brother who was not only a good

mathematician but an excellent mechanic. He took care to carry on my instruction in that branch of

knowledge, as well as to teach me to make models of machines and buildings, in which he was himself

proficient. I remember, in one of my journeys to Edinburgh, by coach from Darlington, that a gentleman

expressed his wonder what a screw propeller could be like; for the screw, as a method of propulsion, was then

being introduced. I pointed out to him the patent tail of a windmill by the roadside, and said, "It is just like

In 1844 my mother died; and shortly after, my brother having become M.D., and obtained a prize gold medal,

we returned to Scarborough. It was intended that he should assist my father; but he preferred going abroad for

a few years. I may mention further, with relation to him, that after many years of scientific research and

professional practice, he died at Hong Kong in 1858, when a public monument was erected to his memory, in

I remained for a short time under the tuition of my old master. But as the time was rapidly approaching when

I too must determine what I was "to be" in life. I had no hesitation in deciding to be an engineer, though my

father wished me to be a barrister. But I kept constant to my resolution; and eventually he succeeded, through

his early acquaintance with George Stephenson, in gaining for me an entrance to the engineering works of

Robert Stephenson and Co., at NewcastleuponTyne. I started there as a pupil on my fifteenth birthday, for

an apprenticeship of five years. I was to spend the first four years in the various workshops, and the last year

I was now in my element. The working hours, it is true, were very long,being from six in the morning until

8.15 at night; excepting on Saturday, when we knocked off at four. However, all this gave me so much the

more experience; and, taking advantage of it, I found that, when I had reached the age of eighteen, I was

intrusted with the full charge of erecting one side of a locomotive. I had to accomplish the same amount of

work as my mate on the other side, one Murray Playfair, a powerful, hardworking Scotchman. My strength

and endurance were sometimes taxed to the utmost, and required the intervals of my labour to be spent in

I afterwards went through the machineshops. I was fortunate enough to get charge of the best screwcutting

and brassturning lathe in the shop; the former occupant, Jack Singleton, having just been promoted to a

foreman's berth at the Messrs. Armstrong's factory. He afterwards became superintendent of all the hydraulic

machinery of the Mersey Dock Trust at Liverpool. After my four years had been completed, I went into the

drawingoffice, to which I had looked forward with pleasure; and, having before practised lineal as well as

freehand drawing, I soon succeeded in getting good and difficult designs to work out, and eventually

finished drawings of the engines. Indeed, on visiting the works many years after, one of these drawings was

shown to me as a "specimen;" the person exhibiting it not knowing that it was my own work.

In the course of my occasional visits to Scarborough, my attention was drawn to the imperfect design of the

lifeboats of the period; the frequent shipwrecks along the coast indicating the necessity for their

improvement. After considerable deliberation, I matured a plan for a metal lifeboat, of a cylindricoconical

or chrysalis form, to be propelled by a screw at each end, turned by sixteen men inside, seated on

waterballast tanks; sufficient room being left at the ends inside for the accommodation of ten or twelve

shipwrecked persons; while a mate near the bow, and the captain near the stern in charge of the rudder, were

stationed in recesses in the deck about three feet deep. The whole apparatus was almost cylindrical, and

watertight, save in the selfacting ventilators, which could only give access to the smallest portion of water. I

considered that, if the lifeboat fully manned were launched into the roughest seas, or off the deck of a vessel,

it would, even if turned on its back, immediately right itself, without any of the crew being disturbed from

It happened that at this time (the summer of 1850) his Grace the late Duke of Northumberland, who had

always taken a deep interest in the Lifeboat Institution, offered a prize of one hundred guineas for the best

model and design of such a craft; so I determined to complete my plans and make a working model of my

lifeboat. I came to the conclusion that the cylindricoconical form, with the frames to be carried completely

round and forming beams as well, and the two screws, one at each end, worked off the same power, by which

one or other of them would always be immersed, were worth registering in the Patent Office. I therefore

entered a caveat there; and continued working at my model in the evenings. I first made a wooden block

model, on the scale of an inch to the foot. I had some difficulty in procuring sheets of copper thin enough, so

that the model should draw only the correct amount of water; but at last I succeeded, through finding the man

at Newcastle who had supplied my father with copper plates for his early road locomotive.

The model was only 32 inches in length, and 8 inches in beam; and in order to fix all the internal fittings, of

tanks, seats, crank handles, and pulleys, I had first to fit the shell plating, and then, by finally securing one

strake of plates on, and then another, after all inside was complete, I at last finished for good the last outside

plate. In executing the job, my early experience of all sorts of handiwork came serviceably to my aid. After

many a whole night's workfor the evenings alone were not sufficient for the purposeI at length

completed my model; and triumphantly and confidently took it to sea in an open boat; and then cast it into the

waves. The model either rode over them or passed through them; if it was sometimes rolled over, it righted

itself at once, and resumed its proper attitude in the waters. After a considerable trial I found scarcely a trace

of water inside. Such as had got there was merely through the joints in the sliding hatches; though the

I completed the prescribed drawings and specifications, and sent them, together with the model, to Somerset

House. Some 280 schemes of lifeboats were submitted for competition; but mine was not successful. I

suspect that the extreme novelty of the arrangement deterred the adjudicators from awarding in its favour.

Indeed, the scheme was so unprecedented, and so entirely out of the ordinary course of things, that there was

no special mention made of it in the report afterwards published, and even the description there given was

incorrect. The prize was awarded to Mr. James Beeching, of Great Yarmouth, whose plans were afterwards

generally adopted by the Lifeboat Society. I have preserved my model just as it was; and some of its features

The firm of Robert Stephenson and Co. having contracted to build for the Government three large iron

caissons for the Keyham Docks, and as these were very similar in construction to that of an ordinary iron

ship, draughtsmen conversant with that class of work were specially engaged to superintend it. The manager,

knowing my fondness for ships, placed me as his assistant at this new work. After I had mastered it, I

endeavoured to introduce improvements, having observed certain defects in laying down the linesI mean

by the use of graduated curves cut out of thin wood. In lieu of this method, I contrived thin tapered laths of

lancewood, and weights of a particular form, with steel claws and knife edges attached, so as to hold the lath

tightly down to the paper, yet capable of being readily adjusted, so as to produce any form of curve, along

which the pen could freely and continuously travel. This method proved very efficient, and it has since come

The Messrs. Stephenson were then also making marine engines, as well as large condensing pumping

engines, and a large tubular bridge to be erected over the river Don. The splendid highlevel bridge over the

Tyne, of which Robert Stephenson was the engineer, was also in course of construction. With the opportunity

of seeing these great works in progress, and of visiting, during my holidays and long evenings, most of the

manufactories and mines in the neighbourhood of Newcastle, I could not fail to pick up considerable

knowledge, and an acquaintance with a vast variety of trades. There were about thirty other pupils in the

works at the same time with myself; some were there either through favour or idle fancy; but comparatively

few gave their full attention to the work, and I have since heard nothing of them. Indeed, unless a young

fellow takes a real interest in his work, and has a genuine love for it, the greatest advantages will prove of no

It was a good plan adopted at the works, to require the pupils to keep the same hours as the rest of the men,

and, though they paid a premium on entering, to give them the same rate of wages as the rest of the lads. Mr.

William Hutchinson, a contemporary of George Stephenson, was the managing partner. He was a person of

great experience, and had the most thorough knowledge of men and materials, knowing well how to handle

His soninlaw, Mr. William Weallans, was the head draughtsman, and very proficient, not only in

quickness but in accuracy and finish. I found it of great advantage to have the benefit of the example and the

My five years apprenticeship was completed in May 1851, on my twentieth birthday. Having had but very

little "black time," as it was called, beyond the halfyearly holiday for visiting my friends, and having only

"slept in" twice during the five years, I was at once entered on the books as a journeyman, on the "big" wage

of twenty shillings a week. Orders were, however, at that time very difficult to be had.

Railway trucks, and even navvies' barrows, were contracted for in order to keep the men employed. It was

better not to discharge them, and to find something for them to do. At the same time it was not very

encouraging for me, under such circumstances, to remain with the firm. I therefore soon arranged to leave;

and first of all I went to see London. It was the Great Exhibition year of 1851. I need scarcely say what a rich

feast I found there, and how thoroughly I enjoyed it all. I spent about two months in inspecting the works of

art and mechanics in the Exhibition, to my own great advantage. I then returned home; and, after remaining in

Scarborough for a short time, I proceeded to Glasgow with a letter of introduction to Messrs. J. and G.

Thomson, marine engine builders, who started me on the same wages which I had received at Stephenson's,

I found the banks of the Clyde splendid ground for gaining further mechanical knowledge. There were the

ship and engine works on both sides of the river, down to Govan; and below there, at Renfrew, Dumbarton,

Port Glasgow, and Greenockno end of magnificent yardsso that I had plenty of occupation for my

leisure time on Saturday afternoons. The works of Messrs. Robert Napier and Sons were then at the top of the

tree. The largest Cunard steamers were built and engined there. Tod and Macgregor were the foremost in

screw steamshipsthose for the Peninsular and Oriental Company being splendid models of symmetry and

works of art. Some of the fine wooden paddlesteamers built in Bristol for the Royal Mail Company were

sent round to the Clyde for their machinery. I contrived to board all these ships from time to time, so as to

As an illustration of how contrivances, excellent in principle, but defective in construction, may be discarded,

but again taken up under more favourable circumstances, I may mention that I saw a Hall's patent

surfacecondensor thrown to one side from one of these steamers, the principal difficulty being in keeping it

tight. And yet, in the course of a very few years, by the simplest possible contrivanceinserting an

indiarubber ring round each end of the tube (Spencer's patent)surface condensation in marine engines came

into vogue; and there is probably no oceangoing steamer afloat without it, furnished with every variety of

After some time, the Messrs. Thomson determined to build their own vessels, and an experienced naval

draughtsman was engaged, to whom I was "told off" whenever he needed assistance. In the course of time,

more and more of the ship work came in my way. Indeed, I seemed to obtain the preference. Fortunately for

us both, my superior obtained an appointment of a similar kind on the Tyne, at superior pay, and I was

promoted to his place. The Thomsons had now a very fine shipbuildingyard, in full working order, with

several large steamers on the stocks. I was placed in the drawingoffice as head draughtsman. At the same

time I had no rise of wages; but still went on enjoying my twenty shillings a week. I was, however, gaining

information and experience, and knew that better pay would follow in due course of time. And without

solicitation I was eventually offered an engagement for a term of years, at an increased and increasing salary,

I had only enjoyed the advance for a short time, when Mr. Thomas Toward, a shipbuilder on the Tyne, being

in want of a manager, made application to the Messrs. Stephenson for such a person. They mentioned my

name, and Mr. Toward came over to the Clyde to see me. The result was, that I became engaged, and it was

arranged that I should enter on my enlarged duties on the Tyne in the autumn of 1853. It was with no small

reluctance that I left the Messrs. Thomson. They were firstclass practical men, and had throughout shown

me every kindness and consideration. But a managership was not to be had every day; and being the next step

to the position of a master, I could not neglect the opportunity for advancement which now offered itself.

Before leaving Glasgow, however, I found that it would be necessary to have a new angle and plate furnace

provided for the works on the Tyne. Now, the best man in Glasgow for building these important requisites for

shipbuilding work was scarcely ever sober; but by watching and coaxing him, and by a liberal supply of

Glenlivat afterwards, I contrived to lay down on paper, from his directions, what he considered to be the best

class of furnace; and by the aid of this I was afterwards enabled to construct what proved to be the best

To return to my education in shipbuilding. My early efforts in shipdraughting at Stephensons' were further

developed and matured at Thomsons' on the Clyde. Models and drawings were more carefully worked out on

the 1/4in. scale than heretofore. The stern frames were laid off and put up at once correctly, which before

had been first shaped by fullsized wooden moulds. I also contrived a mode of quickly and correctly laying

off the framelines on a model, by laying it on a plane surface, and then, with a rectangular block traversing

ita pencil in a suitable holder being readily applied over the curved surface. This method is now in general

Even at that time, competition as regards speed in the Clyde steamers was very keen. Foremost among the

competitors was the late Mr. David Hutchinson, who, though delighted with the Mountaineer, built by the

Thomsons in 1853, did not hesitate to have her lengthened forward to make her sharper, so as to secure her

ascendency in speed during the ensuing season. The results were satisfactory; and his steamers grew and

grew, until they developed into the celebrated Iona and Cambria, which were in later years built for him by

the same firm. I may mention that the Cunard screw steamer Jura was the last heavy job with which I was

I then proceeded to the Tyne, to superintend the building of ships and marine boilers. The shipbuilding yard

was at St. Peter's, about two and ahalf miles below Newcastle. I found the work, as practised there, rough

and ready; but by steady attention to all the details, and by careful inspection when passing the "piecework"

(a practice much in vogue there, but which I discouraged), I contrived to raise the standard of excellence,

without a corresponding increase of price. My object was to raise the quality of the work turned out; and, as

we had orders from the Russian Government, from China, and the Continent, as well as from shipowners at

home, I observed that quality was a very important element in all commercial success. My master, Mr.

Thomas Toward, was in declining health; and, being desirous of spending his winters abroad, I was

consequently left in full charge of the works. But as there did not appear to be a satisfactory prospect, under

the circumstances, for any material development of the business, a trifling circumstance arose, which again

An advertisement appeared in the papers for a manager to conduct a shipbuilding yard in Belfast. I made

inquiries as to the situation, and eventually applied for it. I was appointed, and entered upon my duties there

at Christmas, 1854. The yard was a much larger one than that on the Tyne, and was capable of great

expansion. It was situated on what was then well known as the Queen's Island; but now, like the Isle of Dogs,

it has been attached by reclamation. The yard, about four acres in extent, was held by lease from the Belfast

Harbour Commissioners. It was well placed, alongside a fine patent slip, with clear frontage, allowing of the

largest ships being freely launched. Indeed, the first ship built there, the Mary Stenhouse, had only just been

completed and launched by Messrs. Robert Hickson and Co., then the proprietors of the undertaking. They

were also the owners of the Eliza Street Iron Works, Belfast, which were started to work up old iron

materials. But as the works were found to be unremunerative, they were shortly afterwards closed.

On my entering the shipbuilding yard I found that the firm had an order for two large sailing ships. One of

these was partly in frame; and I at once tackled with it and the men. Mr. Hickson, the acting partner, not

being practically acquainted with the business, the whole proceeding connected with the building of the ships

devolved upon me. I had been engaged to supersede a manager summarily dismissed. Although he had not

given satisfaction to his employers, he was a great favourite with the men. Accordingly, my appearance as

manager in his stead was not very agreeable to the employed. On inquiry I found that the rate of wages paid

was above the usual value, whilst the quantity as well as quality of the work done were below the standard. I

proceeded to rectify these defects, by paying the ordinary rate of wages, and then by raising the quality of the

work done. I was met by the usual methoda strike. The men turned out. They were abetted by the former

manager; and the leading hands hung about the town unemployed, in the hope of my throwing up the post in

But, nothing daunted, I went repeatedly over to the Clyde for the purpose of enlisting fresh hands. When I

brought them over, however, in batches, there was the greatest difficulty in inducing them to work. They

were intimidated, or enticed, or feasted, and sent home again. The late manager had also taken a yard on the

other side of the river, and actually commenced to build a ship, employing some of his old comrades; but

beyond laying the keel, little more was ever done. A few months after my arrival, my firm had to arrange

with its creditors, whilst I, pending the settlement, had myself to guarantee the wages to a few of the leading

hands, whom I had only just succeeded in gathering together. In this dilemma, an old friend, a foreman on the

Clyde, came over to Belfast to see me. After hearing my story, and considering the difficulties I had to

encounter, he advised me at once to "throw up the job!" My reply was, that "having mounted a restive horse, I

Notwithstanding the advice of my friend, I held on. The comparatively few men in the works, as well as those

out, no doubt observed my determination. The obstacles were no doubt great; the financial difficulties were

extreme; and yet there was a prospect of profit from the work in hand, provided only the men could be

induced to settle steadily down to their ordinary employment. I gradually gathered together a number of

steady workmen, and appointed suitable foremen. I obtained a considerable accession of strength from

Newcastle. On the death of Mr. Toward, his head foreman, Mr. William Hanston, with a number of the

leading hands, joined me. From that time forward the works went on apace; and we finished the ships in hand

Orders were obtained for several large sailing ships as well as screw vessels. We lifted and repaired wrecked

ships, to the material advantage of Mr. Hickson, then the sole representative of the firm. After three years

thus engaged, I resolved to start somewhere as a shipbuilder on my own account. I made inquiries at Garston,

Birkenhead, and other places. When Mr. Hickson heard of my intentions, he said he had no wish to carry on

the concern after I left, and made a satisfactory proposal for the sale to me of his holding of the Queen's

Island Yard. So I agreed to the proposed arrangement. The transfer and the purchase were soon completed,

through the kind assistance of my old and esteemed friend Mr. G. G. Schwabe, of Liverpool; whose nephew,

It was necessary, however, before commencing for myself, that I should assist Mr. Hickson in finishing off

the remaining vessels in hand, as well as to look out for orders on my own account. Fortunately, I had not

long to wait; for it had so happened that my introduction to the Messrs. Thomson of Glasgow had been made

through the instrumentality of my good friend Mr. Schwabe, who induced Mr. James Bibby (of J. Bibby,

Sons Co., Liverpool) to furnish me with the necessary letter. While in Glasgow, I had endeavoured to assist

the Messrs. Bibby in the purchase of a steamer; so I was now intrusted by them with the building of three

screw steamers the Venetian, Sicilian, and Syrian, each 270 feet long, by 34 feet beam, and 22 feet 9 inches

hold; and contracted with Macnab and Co., Greenock, to supply the requisite steamengines.

This was considered a large order in those days. It required many additions to the machinery, plant, and tools

of the yard. I invited Mr. Wolff, then away in the Mediterranean as engineer of a steamer, to return and take

charge of the drawing office. Mr. Wolff had served his apprenticeship with Messrs. Joseph Whitworth and

Co., of Manchester, and was a most able man, thoroughly competent for the work. Everything went on

prosperously; and, in the midst of all my engagements, I found time to woo and win the hand of Miss Rosa

Wann, of Vermont, Belfast, to whom I was married on the 26th of January, 1860, and by her great energy,

soundness of judgment, and cleverness in organization, I was soon relieved from all sources of care and

The steamers were completed in the course of the following year, doubtless to the satisfaction of the owners,

for their delivery was immediately followed by an order for two larger vessels. As I required frequently to go

from home, and as the works must be carefully attended to during my absence, on the 1st of January, 1862, I

took Mr. Wolff in as a partner; and the firm has since continued under the name of Harland and Wolff. I may

here add that I have throughout received the most able advice and assistance from my excellent friend and

partner, and that we have together been enabled to found an entirely new branch of industry in Belfast.

It is necessary for me here to refer back a little to a screw steamer which was built on the Clyde for Bibby and

Co. by Mr. John Read, and engined by J. and G. Thomson while I was with them. That steamer was called the

Tiber. She was looked upon as of an extreme length, being 235 feet, in proportion to her beam, which was 29

feet. Serious misgivings were thrown out as to whether she would ever stand a heavy sea. Vessels of such

proportions were thought to be crank, and even dangerous. Nevertheless, she seemed to my mind a great

success. From that time, I began to think and work out the advantages and disadvantages of such a vessel,

from an owner's as well as from a builder's point of view. The result was greatly in favour of the owner,

though entailing difficulties in construction as regards the builder. These difficulties, however. I thought

In the first steamers ordered of me by the Messrs. Bibby, I thought it more prudent to simply build to the

dimensions furnished, although they were even longer than usual. But, prior to the precise dimensions being

fixed for the second order, I with confidence proposed my theory of the greater carrying power and

accommodation, both for cargo and passengers, that would be gained by constructing the new vessels of

increased length, without any increase of beam. I conceived that they would show improved qualities in a

seaway, and that, notwithstanding the increased accommodation, the same speed with the same power

would be obtained, by only a slight increase in the first cost. The result was, that I was allowed to settle the

dimensions; and the following were then decided on: Length, 310 feet; beam, 34 feet; depth of hold, 24 feet 9

inches; all of which were fully compensated for by making the upper deck entirely of iron. In this way, the

hull of the ship was converted into a box girder of immensely increased strength, and was, I believe, the first

ocean steamer ever so constructed. The rig too was unique. The four masts were made in one continuous

length, with foreandaft sails, but no yards,thereby reducing the number of hands necessary to work

them. And the steam winches were so arranged as to be serviceable for all the heavy hauls, as well as for the

In the introduction of so many novelties, I was well supported by Mr. F. Leyland, the junior partner of

Messrs. Bibby's firm, and by the intelligent and practical experience of Captain Birch, the overlooker, and

Captain George Wakeham, the Commodore of the company. Unsuccessful attempts had been made many

years before to condense the steam from the engines by passing it into variously formed chambers, tubes, to

be there condensed by surfaces kept cold by the circulation of seawater round them, so as to preserve the

pure water and return it to the boilers free of salt. In this way, "salting up" was avoided, and a considerable

Mr. Spencer had patented an improvement on Hall's method of surface condensation, by introducing

indiarubber rings at each end of the tubes. This had been tried as an experiment on shore, and we advised that

it should be adopted in one of Messrs. Bibby's smallest steamers, the Frankfort. The results were found

perfectly satisfactory. Some 20 per cent. of fuel was saved; and, after the patent right had been bought, the

When these new ships were first seen at Liverpool, the "old salts" held up their hands. They were too long!

they were too sharp! they would break their backs! They might, indeed, get out of the Mersey, but they would

never get back! The ships, however, sailed; and they made rapid and prosperous voyages to and from the

Mediterranean. They fulfilled all the promises which had been made. They proved the advantages of our new

build of ships; and the owners were perfectly satisfied with their superior strength, speed, and

accommodation. The Bibbys were wise men in their day and generation. They did not stop, but went on

ordering more ships. After the Grecian and the Italian had made two or three voyages to Alexandria, they sent

us an order for three more vessels. By our advice, they were made twenty feet longer than the previous ones,

though of no greater beam; in other respects, they were almost identical. This was too much for "Jack."

"What!" he exclaimed, "more Bibby's coffins?" Yes, more and more; and in the course of time, most

To a young firm, a repetition of orders like these was a great advantage,not only because of the novel

design of the ships, but also because of their constructive details. We did our best to fit up the Egyptian,

Dalmatian, and Arabian, as firstrate vessels. Those engaged in the Mediterranean trade finding them to be

serious rivals, partly because of the great cargos which they carried, but principally from the regularity with

which they made their voyages with such surprisingly small consumption of coal. They were not, however,

what "Jack" had been accustomed to consider "dry ships." The ship built Dutchman fashion, with her bluff

ends, is the driest of all ships, but the least steady, because she rises to every sea. But the new ships, because

of their length and sharpness, precluded this; for, though they rose sufficiently to an approaching wave for all

purposes of safety, they often went through the crest of it, and, though shipping a little water, it was not only

Nature seems to have furnished us with the finest design for a vessel in the form of the fish: it presents such

fine linesis so clean, so true, and so rapid in its movements. The ship, however, must float; and to hit upon

the happy medium of velocity and stability seems to me the art and mystery of shipbuilding. In order to give

large carrying capacity, we gave flatness of bottom and squareness of bilge. This became known in Liverpool

as the "Belfast bottom;" and it has been generally adopted. This form not only serves to give stability, but

While Sailor Jack and our many commercial rivals stood aghast and wondered, our friends gave us yet

another order for a still longer ship, with still the same beam and power. The vessel was named the Persian;

she was 360 feet long, 34 feet beam, 24 feet 9 inches hold. More cargo was thus carried, at higher speed. It

was only a further development of the fish form of structure. Venice was an important port to call at. The

channel was difficult to navigate, and the Venetian class (270 feet long) was supposed to be the extreme

length that could be handled here. But what with the straight stem,by cutting the forefoot away, and by the

introduction of powerful steeringgear, worked amidships,the captain was able to navigate the Persian, 90

Until the building of the Persian, we had taken great pride in the modelling and finish of the old style of

cutwater and figurehead, with bowsprit and jibboom; but in urging the advantages of greater length of hull,

we were met by the fact of its being simply impossible in certain docks to swing vessels of any greater length

than those already constructed. Not to be beaten, we proposed to do away with all these overhanging

encumbrances, and to adopt a perpendicular stem. In this way the hull might be made so much longer; and

this was, I believe, the first occasion of its being adopted in this country in the case of an ocean steamer;

though the once celebrated Collins Line of paddle steamers had, I believe, such stems. The iron decks, iron

bulwarks, and iron rails, were all found very serviceable in our later vessels, there being no leaking, no

caulking of deckplanks or waterways, nor any consequent damaging of cargo. Having found it impossible to

combine satisfactorily wood with iron, each being so differently affected by temperature and moisture, I

secured some of these novelties of construction in a patent, by which filling in the spaces between frames,

with Portland cement, instead of chocks of wood, and covering the iron plates with cement and tiles, came

The Tiber, already referred to, was 235 feet in length when first constructed by Read, of Glasgow, and was

then thought too long; but she was now placed in our hands to be lengthened 39 feet, as well as to have an

iron deck added, both of which greatly improved her. We also lengthened the Messrs. Bibby's Calpealso

built by Messrs. Thomson while I was thereby no less than 93 feet. The advantage of lengthening ships,

retaining the same beam and power, having become generally recognised, we were in trusted by the Cunard

Company to lengthen the Hecla, Olympus, Atlas, and Marathon, each by 63 feet. The Royal Consort P.S.,

which had been lengthened first at Liverpool, was again lengthened by us at Belfast.

The success of all this heavy work, executed for successful owners, put a sort of backbone into the Belfast

shipbuilding yard. While other concerns were slack, we were either lengthening or building steamers as well

as sailingships for firms in Liverpool, London, and Belfast. Many acres of ground were added to the works.

The Harbour Commissioners had now made a fine new gravingdock, and connected the Queen's Island with

the mainland. The yard, thus improved and extended, was surveyed by the Admiralty, and placed on the

firstclass list. We afterwards built for the Government the gun vessels Lynx and Algerine, as well as the

The Suez Canal being now open, our friends the Messrs. Bibby gave us an order for three steamers of very

large tonnage, capable of being adapted for trade with the antipodes if necessary. In these new vessels there

was no retrograde step as regards length, for they were 390 feet keel by 37 feet beam, squarerigged on three

of the masts, with the yards for the first time fitted on travellers, as to enable them to be readily sent down;

thus forming a unique combination of big foreandaft sails, with handy square sails. These ships were

named the Istrian, Iberian, and Illyrian, and in 1868 they went to sea; soon after to be followed by three more

shipsthe Bavarian, Bohemian, and Bulgarianin most respects the same, though ten feet longer, with the

same beam. They were first placed in the Mediterranean trade, but were afterwards transferred to the

Liverpool and Boston trade, for cattle and emigrants. These, with three smaller steamers for the Spanish cattle

trade, and two larger steamers for other trades, made together twenty steamvessels constructed for the

Messrs. John Bibby, Sons, Co.; and it was a matter of congratulation that, after a great deal of heavy and

constant work, not one of them had exhibited the slightest indication of weakness,all continuing in

The speedy and economic working of the Belfast steamers, compared with those of the ordinary type, having

now become well known, a scheme was set on foot in 1869 for employing similar vessels, though of larger

size, for passenger and goods accommodation between England and America. Mr. T. H. Ismay,of Liverpool,

the spirited shipowner, then formed, in conjunction with the late Mr. G. H. Fletcher, the Oceanic Steam

Navigation Company, Limited; and we were commissioned by them to build six large Transatlantic steamers,

capable of carrying a heavy cargo of goods, as well as a full complement of cabin and steerage passengers,

between Liverpool and New York, at a speed equal, if not superior, to that of the Cunard and Inman lines.

The vessels were to be longer than any we had yet constructed, being 420 feet keel and 41 feet beam, with 32

This was a great opportunity, and we eagerly embraced it. The works were now up to the mark in point of

extent and appliances. The men in our employment were mostly of our own training: the foremen had been

promoted from the ranks; the manager, Mr. W. H. Wilson, and the head draughtsman, Mr. W. J. Pirrie (since

become partners), having, as pupils, worked up through all the departments, and ultimately won their

honourable and responsible positions by dint of merit onlyby character, perseverance, and ability. We were

therefore in a position to take up an important contract of this kind, and to work it out with heart and soul.

As everything in the way of saving of fuel was of firstrate importance, we devoted ourselves to that branch

of economic working. It was necessary that buoyancy or space should be left for cargo, at the same time that

increased speed should be secured, with as little consumption of coal as possible. The Messrs. Elder and Co.,

of Glasgow, had made great strides in this direction with the paddle steamengines which they had

constructed for the Pacific Company on the compound principle. They had also introduced them on some of

their screw steamers, with more or less success. Others were trying the same principle in various forms, by

the use of highpressure cylinders, and so on; the form of the boilers being varied according to

circumstances, for the proper economy of fuel. The first thing absolutely wanted was, perfectly reliable

information as to the actual state of the compound engine and boiler up to the date of our inquiry. To

ascertain the facts by experience, we dispatched Mr. Alexander Wilson, younger brother of the manager who

had been formerly a pupil of Messrs. Macnab and Co., of Greenock, and was thoroughly able for the

workto make a number of voyages in steam vessels fitted with the best examples of compound engines.

The result of this careful inquiry was the design of the machinery and boilers of the Oceanic and five

sisterships. They were constructed on the vertical overhead "tandem" type, with fivefeet stroke (at that

time thought excessive), oval singleended transverse boilers, with a working pressure of sixty pounds. We

contracted with Messrs. Maudslay, Sons, and Field, of London, for three of these sets, and with Messrs.

George Forrester and Co., of Liverpool, for the other three; and as we found we could build the six vessels in

the same time as the machinery was being constructed; and, as all this machinery had to be conveyed to

Belfast to be there fitted on board, whilst the vessels were being otherwise finished, we built a little

screwsteamer, the Camel, of extra strength, with very big hatchways, to receive these large masses of iron;

and this, in course of time, was found to work with great advantage; until eventually we constructed our own

We were most fortunate in the type of engine we had fixed upon, for it proved both economical and

serviceable in all ways; and, with but slight modifications, we repeated it in the many subsequent vessels

which we built for the White Star Company. Another feature of novelty in these vessels consisted in placing

the firstclass accommodation amidships, with the thirdclass aft and forward. In all previous ocean

steamers, the cabin passengers had been berthed near the stern, where the heaving motion of the vessel was

far greater than in the centre, and where that most disagreeable vibration inseparable from proximity to the

propeller was ever present. The unappetising smells from the galley were also avoided. And last, but not

least, a commodious smokingsaloon was fitted up amidships, contrasting most favourably with the scanty

accommodation provided in other vessels. The saloon, too, presented the novelty of extending the full width

of the vessel, and was lighted from each side. Electric bells were for the first time fitted on board ship. The

saloon and entire range of cabins were lighted by gas, made on board, though this has since given place to the

incandescent electric light. A fine promenade deck was provided over the saloon, which was accessible from

These, and other arrangements, greatly promoted the comfort and convenience of the cabin passengers; while

those in the steerage found great improvements in convenience, sanitation, and accommodation. "Jack" had

his forecastle well ventilated and lighted, and a turtleback over his head when on deck, with winches to haul

for him, and a steamengine to work the wheel; while the engineers and firemen berthed as near their work as

possible, never needing to wet a jacket or miss a meal. In short, for the first time perhaps, oceanvoyaging,

even in the North Atlantic, was made not only less tedious and dreadful to all, but was rendered enjoyable

and even delightful to many. Before the Oceanic, the pioneer of the new line, was even launched, rival

companies had already consigned her to the deepest place in the ocean. Her first appearance in Liverpool was

therefore regarded with much interest. Mr. Ismay, during the construction of the vessel, took every pains to

suggest improvements and arrangements with a view to the comfort and convenience of the travelling public.

He accompanied the vessel on her first voyage to New York in March, 1871, under command of Captain,

now Sir Digby Murray, Brt. Although severe weather was experienced, the ship made a splendid voyage,

with a heavy cargo of goods and passengers. The Oceanic thus started the Transatlantic traffic of the

It may be mentioned that the speed of the Oceanic was at least a knot faster per hour than had been heretofore

accomplished across the Atlantic. The motion of the vessel was easy, without any indication of weakness or

straining, even in the heaviest weather. The only inducement to slow was when going head to it (which often

meant head through it), to avoid the inconvenience of shipping a heavy body of "green sea" on deck forward.

A turtleback was therefore provided to throw it off, which proved so satisfactory, as it had done on the

Holyhead and Kingstown boats, that all the subsequent vessels were similarly constructed. Thus, then, as

with the machinery, so was the hull of the Oceanic, a type of the succeeding vessels, which after intervals of a

Having often observed, when at sea in heavy weather, how the pitching of the vessel caused the weights on

the safetyvalves to act irregularly, thus letting puffs of steam escape at every heave, and as high pressure

steam was too valuable a commodity to be so wasted, we determined to try directacting spiral springs,

similar to those used in locomotives, in connection with the compound engine. But as no such experiment

was possible in any vessels requiring the Board of Trade certificate, the alternative of using the Camel as an

experimental vessel was adopted. The spiral springs were accordingly fitted upon the boiler of that vessel,

and with such a satisfactory result that the Board of Trade allowed the use of the same contrivance on all the

boilers of the Oceanic and every subsequent steamer, and the contrivance has now come into general use.

It would be too tedious to mention in detail the other ships built for the White Star line. The Adriatic and

Celtic were made 17 feet 6 inches longer than the Oceanic, and a little sharper, being 437 feet 6 inches keel,

41 feet beam, and 32 feet hold. The success of the Company had been so great under the able management of

Ismay, Imrie and Co., and they had secured so large a share of the passengers and cargo, as well as of the

mails passing between Liverpool and New York, that it was found necessary to build two still larger and

faster vesselsthe Britannic and Germamic: these were 455 feet in length; 45 feet in beam; and of 5000

indicated horsepower. The Britannic was in the first instance constructed with the propeller fitted to work

below the line of keel when in deep water, by which means the "racing" of the engines was avoided. When

approaching shallow water, the propeller was raised by steampower to the ordinary position without any

necessity for stopping the engines during the operation. Although there was an increase of speed by this

means through the uniform revolutions of the machinery in the heaviest sea, yet there was an objectionable

amount of vibration at certain parts of the vessel, so that we found it necessary to return to the ordinary fixed

propeller, working in the line of direction of the vessel. Comfort at sea is of even more importance than

speed; and although we had succeeded in four small steamers working on the new principle, it was found

better to continue in the larger ships to resort to the established modes of propulsion. It may happen that at

Meanwhile competition went on with other companies. Monopoly cannot exist between England and

America. Our plans were followed; and sharper boats and heavier power became the rule of the day. But

increase of horsepower of engines means increase of heating surface and largely increased boilers, when we

reach the vanishing point of profit, after which there is nothing left but speed and expense. It may be possible

to fill a ship with boilers, and to save a few hours in the passage from Liverpool to New York by a

tremendous expenditure of coal; but whether that will answer the purpose of any body of shareholders must

"Brute force" may be still further employed. It is quite possible that recent "large strides" towards a more

The last ships we have constructed for Ismay, Imrie and Co. have been of comparatively moderate

dimensions and powerthe Arabic and Coptic, 430 feet long; and the Ionic and Boric, 440 feet long, all of

2700 indicated horsepower. These are large cargo steamers, with a moderate amount of saloon

accommodation, and a large space for emigrants. Some of these are now engaged in crossing the Pacific,

whilst others are engaged in the line from London to New Zealand; the latter being specially fitted up for

To return to the operations of the Belfast shipbuilding yard. A serious accident occurred in the autumn of

1867 to the mail paddlesteamer the Wolf, belonging to the Messrs. Burns, of Glasgow. When passing out of

the Lough, about eight miles from Belfast, she was run into by another steamer. She was cut down and sank,

and there she lay in about seven fathoms of water; the top of her funnel and masts being only visible at low

tide. She was in a dangerous position for all vessels navigating the entrance to the port, and it was necessary

that she should be removed, either by dynamite, gunpowder, or some other process. Divers were sent down to

examine the ship, and the injury done to her being found to be slight, the owners conferred with us as to the

possibility of lifting her and bringing her into port. Though such a process had never before been

accomplished, yet knowing her structure well, and finding that we might rely upon smooth water for about a

week or two in summer, we determined to do what we could to lift the sunken vessel to the surface.

We calculated the probable weight of the vessel, and had a number of airtanks expressly built for her

floatation. These were secured to the ship with chains and hooks, the latter being inserted through the side

lights in her sheer strake. Early in the following summer everything was ready. The airtanks were prepared

and rafted together. Powerful screws were attached to each chain, with handpumps for emptying the tanks,

together with a steam tender fitted with cooking appliances, berths and stores, for all hands engaged in the

enterprise. We succeeded in attaching the hooks and chains by means of divers; the chains being ready coiled

on deck. But the weather, which before seemed to be settled, now gave way. No sooner had we got the pair of

big tanks secured to the after body, than a fierce northnortheasterly gale set in, and we had to run for it,

When the gale had settled, we returned again, and found that no harm had been done. The remainder of the

hooks were properly attached to the rest of the tanks, the chains were screwed tightly up, and the tanks were

pumped clear. Then the tide rose; and before high water we had the great satisfaction of getting the body of

the vessel under weigh, and towing her about a cable's length from her old bed. At each tide's work she was

lifted higher and higher, and towed into shallower water towards Belfast; until at length we had her, after

eight days, safely in the harbour, ready to enter the graving dock,not more ready, however, than we all

were for our beds, for we had neither undressed nor shaved during that anxious time. Indeed, our friends

The result of the enterprise was this. The clean cut made into the bow of the ship by the collision was soon

repaired. The crop of oysters with which she was incrusted gave place to the scraper and the paintbrush. The

Wolf came out of the dock to the satisfaction both of the owners and underwriters; and she was soon "ready

Meanwhile the building of new iron ships went on in the Queen's Island. We were employed by another

Liverpool Companythe British Shipowners' Company, Limitedto supply some large steamers. The

British Empire, of 3361 gross tonnage, was the same class of vessel as those of the White Star line, but fuller,

being intended for cargo. Though originally intended for the Eastern trade, this vessel was eventually placed

on the Liverpool and Philadelphia line; and her working proved so satisfactory that five more vessels were

The Liverpool agents, Messrs. Richardson, Spence, and Co., having purchased the Cunard steamer Russia,

sent her over to us to be lengthened 70 feet, and entirely refittedanother proof of the rapid change which

owners of merchant ships now found it necessary to adopt in view of the requirements of modern traffic.

Another Liverpool firm, the Messrs. T. and J. Brocklebank, of worldwide repute for their fine East

Indiamen, having given up building for themselves at their yard at Whitehaven, commissioned us to build for

them the Alexandria, and Baroda, which were shortly followed by the Candahar and Tenasserim. And

continuing to have a faith in the future of big iron sailing ships, they further employed us to build for them

Indeed, there is a future for sailing ships, notwithstanding the recent development of steam power. Sailing

ships can still hold their own, especially in the transport of heavy merchandise for great distances. They can

be built more cheaply than steamers; they can be worked more economically, because they require no

expenditure on coal, nor on wages of engineers; besides, the space occupied in steamers by machinery is

entirely occupied by merchandise, all of which pays its quota of freight. Another thing may be mentioned: the

telegraph enables the fact of the sailing of a vessel, with its cargo on board, to be communicated from

Calcutta or San Francisco to Liverpool, and from that moment the cargo becomes as marketable as if it were

on the spot. There are cases, indeed, where the freight by sailing ship is even greater than by steamer, as the

charge for warehousing at home is saved, and in the meantime the cargo while at sea is negotiable.

We have accordingly, during the last few years, built some of the largest iron and steel sailing ships that have

ever gone to sea. The aim has been to give them great carrying capacity and fair speed, with economy of

working; and the use of steel, both in the hull and the rigging, facilitates the attainment of these objects. In

1882 and 1883, we built and launched four of these steel and iron sailing shipsthe Waiter H. Wilson, the

W. J. Pirrie, the Fingal, and the Lord Wolseleyeach of nearly 3000 tons register, with four masts,the

owners being Mr. Lawther, of Belfast; Mr. Martin, of Dublin; and the Irish Shipowners Company.

Besides these and other sailing ships, we have built for Messrs. Ismay, Imrie and Co. the Garfield, of 2347

registered tonnage; for Messrs. Thomas Dixon and Son, the Lord Downshire (2322); and for Messrs.

In 1880 we took in another piece of the land reclaimed by the Belfast Harbour Trust; and there, in close

proximity to the shipyard, we manufacture all the machinery required for the service of the steamers

constructed by our firm. In this way we are able to do everything "within ourselves"; and the whole land now

occupied by the works comprises about forty acres, with ten building slips suitable for the largest vessels.

It remains for me to mention a Belfast firm, which has done so much for the town. I mean the Messrs. J.P.

Corry and Co., who have always been amongst our best friends. We built for them their first iron sailing

vessel, the Jane Porter, in 1860, and since then they have never failed us. They successfully established their

"Star" line of sailing clippers from London to Calcutta, all of which were built here. They subsequently gave

us orders for yet larger vessels, in the Star of France and the Star of Italy. In all, we have built for that firm

We have built five ships for the Asiatic Steam Navigation Company, Limited, each of from 1650 to 2059 tons

gross; and we are now building for them two ships, each of about 3000 tons gross. In 1883 we launched

thirteen iron and steel vessels, of a registered tonnage of over 30,000 tons. Out of eleven ships now building,

Such is a brief and summary account of the means by which we have been enabled to establish a new branch

of industry in Belfast. It has been accomplished simply by energy and hard work. We have been

wellsupported by the skilled labour of our artisans; we have been backed by the capital and the enterprise of

England; and we believe that if all true patriots would go and do likewise, there would be nothing to fear for

[1] Although Mr. Harland took no further steps with his lifeboat, the project seems well worthy of a fair trial.

We had lately the pleasure of seeing the model launched and tried on the lake behind Mr. Harland's residence

at Ormiston, near Belfast. The cylindrical lifeboat kept perfectly watertight, and though thrown into the

water in many different positionssometimes tumbled in on its prow, at other times on its back (the deck

being undermost), it invariably righted itself. The screws fore and aft worked well, and were capable of being

turned by human labour or by steam power. Now that such large freights of passengers are carried by

oceangoing ships, it would seem necessary that some such method should be adopted of preserving life at

sea; for ordinary lifeboats, which are so subject to destructive damage, are often of little use in fires or

[2] A full account is given in the Illustrated London News of the 21st of October, 1868, with illustrations, of

the raising of the Wolf; and another, more scientific, is given in the Engineer of the 16th of October, of the

"I first learnt to read when the masons were at work in your house. I approached them one day, and observed

I inquired what might be the meaning and use of these things, and I was informed that there was a science

called Arithmetic. I purchased a book of arithmetic, and I learned it. I was told there was another science

called Geometry; I bought the necessary books, and I learned Geometry. By reading, I found there were good

books in these two sciences in Latin; I bought a dictionary, and I learned Latin. I understood, also, that there

were good books of the same kind in French; I bought a dictionary, and I learned French. It seems to me that

one does not need to know anything more than the twentyfour letters to learn everything else that one

wishes."Edmund Stone to the Duke of Argyll. ('Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties.')

"The British Census proper reckons twentyseven and a half million in the home countries. What makes this

census important is the quality of the units that compose it. They are free forcible men, in a country where

life is safe, and has reached the greatest value. They give the bias to the current age; and that not by chance or

by mass, but by their character, and by the number of individuals among them of personal

From Belfast to the Highlands of Scotland is an easy route by steamers and railways. While at Birnam, near

Dunkeld, I was reminded of some remarkable characters in the neighbourhood. After the publication of the

'Scotch Naturalist' and 'Robert Dick,' I received numerous letters informing me of many selftaught botanists

and students of nature, quite as interesting as the subjects of my memoirs. Among others, there was John

Duncan, the botanist weaver of Aberdeen, whose interesting life has since been done justice to by Mr. Jolly;

and John Sim of Perth, first a shepherd boy, then a soldier, and towards the close of his life a poet and a

There was also Alexander Croall, Custodian of the Smith Institute at Stirling, an admirable naturalist and

botanist. He was originally a hardworking parish schoolmaster, near Montrose. During his holiday

wanderings he collected plants for his extensive herbarium. His accomplishments having come under the

notice of the late Sir William Hooker, he was selected by that gentleman to prepare sets of the Plants of

Braemar for the Queen and Prince Albert, which he did to their entire satisfaction. He gave up his

schoolmastership for an illpaid but more congenial occupation, that of Librarian to the Derby Museum and

Herbarium. Some years ago, he was appointed to his present position of Custodian to the Smith

I could not, however, enter into the history of these remarkable persons; though I understand there is a

probability of Mr. Croall giving his scientific recollections to the world. He has already brought out a

beautiful work, in four volumes, 'British Seaweeds, Natureprinted;' and anything connected with his

Among the other persons brought to my notice, years ago, were Astronomers in humble life. For instance, I

received a letter from John Grierson, keeper of the Girdleness Lighthouse, near Aberdeen, mentioning one of

these persons as "an extraordinary character." "William Ballingall," he said, "is a weaver in the town of

Lower Largo, Fifeshire; and from his early days he has made astronomy the subject of passionate study. I

used to spend my school vacation at Largo, and have frequently heard him expound upon his favourite

subject. I believe that very high opinions have been expressed by scientific gentlemen regarding Ballingall's

attainments. They were no doubt surprised that an individual with but a very limited amount of education,

and whose hours of labour were from five in the morning until ten or eleven at night, should be able to

acquire so much knowledge on so profound a subject. Had he possessed a fair amount of education, and an

assortment of scientific instruments and books, the world would have heard more about him. Should you ever

find yourself," my correspondent concludes, "in his neighbourhood, and have a few hours to spare, you

would have no reason to regret the time spent in his company." I could not, however, arrange to pay the

proposed visit to Largo; but I found that I could, without inconvenience, visit another astronomer in the

In January 1879 I received a letter from Sheriff Barclay, of Perth, to the following effect: "Knowing the deep

interest you take in genius and merit in humble ranks, I beg to state to you an extraordinary case. John

Robertson is a railway porter at Coupar Angus station. From early youth he has made the heavens his study.

Night after night he looks above, and from his small earnings he has provided himself with a telescope which

cost him about 30L. He sends notices of his observations to the scientific journals, under the modest initials

of 'J.R.' He is a great favourite with the public; and it is said that he has made some observations in celestial

phenomena not before noticed. It does occur to me that he should have a wider field for his favourite study.

Nearly five years had elapsed since the receipt of this letter, and I had done nothing to put myself in

communication with the Coupar Angus astronomer. Strange to say, his existence was again recalled to my

notice by Professor Grainger Stewart, of Edinburgh. He said that if I was in the neighbourhood I ought to call

upon him, and that he would receive me kindly. His duty, he said, was to act as porter at the station, and to

shout the name of the place as the trains passed. I wrote to John Robertson accordingly, and received a reply

stating that he would be glad to see me, and inclosing a photograph, in which I recognised a good, honest,

sensible face, with his person inclosed in the usual station porter's garb, "C.R. 1446."

I started from Dunkeld, and reached Coupar Angus in due time. As I approached the station, I heard the

porter calling out, "Coupar Angus! change here for Blairgowrie!"[1] It was the voice of John Robertson.

I descended from the train, and addressed him at once: after the photograph there could be no mistaking him.

An arrangement for a meeting was made, and he called upon me in the evening. I invited him to such

hospitality as the inn afforded; but he would have nothing. "I am much obliged to you," he said; "but it

always does me harm." I knew at once what the "it" meant. Then he invited me to his house in Causewayend

Street. I found his cottage clean and comfortable, presided over by an evidently clever wife. He took me into

his sittingroom, where I inspected his drawings of the sunspots, made in colour on a large scale. In all his

statements he was perfectly modest and unpretending. The following is his story, so far as I can recollect, in

"Yes; I certainly take a great interest in astronomy, but I have done nothing in it worthy of notice. I am

scarcely worthy to be called a day labourer in the science. I am very well known hereabouts, especially to the

travelling public; but I must say that they think a great deal more of me than I deserve.

"What made me first devote my attention to the subject of astronomy? Well, if I can trace it to one thing more

than another, it was to some evening lectures delivered by the late Dr. Dick, of Broughty Ferry, to the men

employed at the Craigs' Bleachfield Works, near Montrose, where I then worked, about the year l848. Dr.

Dick was an excellent lecturer, and I listened to him with attention. His instructions were fully impressed

upon our minds by Mr. Cooper, the teacher of the evening school, which I attended. After giving the young

lads employed at the works their lessons in arithmetic, he would come out with us into the nightand it was

generally late when we separatedand show us the principal constellations, and the planets above the

horizon. It was a wonderful sight; yet we were told that these hundreds upon hundreds of stars, as far as the

eye could see, were but a mere vestige of the creation amidst which we lived. I got to know the names of

some of the constellations the Greater Bear, with 'the pointers' which pointed to the Pole Star, Orion with his

belt, the Twins, the Pleiades, and other prominent objects in the heavens. It was a source of constant wonder

"When I left the Bleachfield Works, I went to Inverury, to the North of Scotland Railway, which was then in

course of formation; and for many years, being immersed in work, I thought comparatively little of

astronomy. It remained, however, a pleasant memory. It was only after coming to this neighbourhood in

1854, when the railway to Blairgowrie was under construction, that I began to read up a little, during my

leisure hours, on the subject of astronomy. I got married the year after, since which time I have lived in this

"I became a member of a readingroom club, and read all the works of Dr. Dick that the library contained:

his 'Treatise on the Solar System,' his 'Practical Astronomer,' and other works. There were also some very

good popular works to which I was indebted for amusement as well as instruction: Chambers's 'Information

for the People,' Cassell's ' Popular Educator,' and a very interesting series of articles in the 'Leisure Hour,' by

Edwin Dunkin of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. These last papers were accompanied by maps of the

chief constellations, so that I had a renewed opportunity of becoming a little better acquainted with the

"I began to have a wish for a telescope, by means of which I might be able to see a little more than with my

naked eyes. But I found that I could not get anything of much use, short of 20L. I could not for a long time

feel justified in spending so much money for my own personal enjoyment. My children were then young and

dependent upon me. They required to attend schoolfor education is a thing that parents must not neglect,

with a view to the future. However, about the year 1875, my attention was called to a cheap instrument

advertised by Solomonwhat he called his '5L. telescope.' I purchased one, and it tantalised me; for the

power of the instrument was such as to teach me nothing of the surface of the planets. After using it for about

two years, I sold it to a student, and then found that I had accumulated enough savings to enable me to buy

I went accordingly into the adjoining room, and looked at the new telescope. It was taken from its case, put

upon its tripod, and looked in beautiful condition. It is a refractor, made by Cooke and Sons of York. The

object glass is three inches; the focal length fortythree inches; and the telescope, when drawn out, with the

pancratic eyepiece attached, is about four feet. It was made after Mr. Robertson's directions, and is a sort of

"Even that instrument," he proceeded, "good as it is for the money, tantalises me yet. A look through a fixed

equatorial, such as every large observatory is furnished with is a glorious view. I shall never forget the sight

that I got when at Dunecht Observatory, to which I was invited through the kindness of Dr. Copeland, the

"You ask me what I have done in astronomical research? I am sorry to say I have been able to do little except

to gratify my own curiosity; and even then, as I say, I have been much tantalised. I have watched the spots on

the sun from day to day through obscured glasses, since the year 1878, and made many drawings of them.

Mr. Rand Capron, the astronomer, of Guildown, Guildford, desired to see these drawings, and after

expressing his satisfaction with them, he sent them to Mr. Christie, Astronomer Royal, Greenwich. Although

photographs of the solar surface were preferred, Mr. Capron thought that my sketches might supply gaps in

the partially cloudy days, as well as details which might not appear on the photographic plates. I received a

very kind letter from Mr. Christie, in which he said that it would be very difficult to make the results obtained

from drawings, however accurate, at all comparable with those derived from photographs; especially as

regards the accurate size of the spots as compared with the diameter of the sun. And no doubt he is right.

"What, do I suppose, is the cause of these spots in the sun? Well, that is a very difficult question to answer.

Changes are constantly going on at the sun's surface, or, I may rather say, in the sun's interior, and making

themselves apparent at the surface. Sometimes they go on with enormous activity; at other times they are

more quiet. They recur alternately in periods of seven or eight weeks, while these again are also subject to a

period of about eleven yearsthat is, the short recurring outbursts go on for some years, when they attain a

maximum, from which they go on decreasing. I may say that we are now (August 1883) at, or very near, a

maximum epoch. There is no doubt that this period has an intimate connection with our auroral displays; but

I don't think that the influence sunspots have on light or heat is perceptible. Whatever influence they possess

would be felt alike on the whole terrestrial globe. We have wet, dry, cold, and warm years, but they are never

general. The kind of season which prevails in one country is often quite reversed in another perhaps in the

adjacent one. Not so with our auroral displays. They are universal on both sides of the globe; and from pole

to pole the magnetic needle trembles during their continuance. Some authorities are of opinion that these

elevenyear cycles are subject to a larger cycle, but sunspot observations have not existed long enough to

determine this point. For myself, I have a great difficulty in forming an opinion. I have very little doubt that

the spots are depressions on the surface of the sun. This is more apparent when the spot is on the limb. I have

often seen the edge very rugged and uneven when groups of large spots were about to come round on the east

side. I have communicated some of my observations to 'The Observatory,' the monthly review of astronomy,

edited by Mr. Christie, now Astronomer Royal,[2] as well as to The Scotsmam, and some of our local

"I have also taken up the observation of variable stars in a limited portion of the heavens. That, and 'hunting

for comets' is about all the real astronomical work that an amateur can do nowadays in our climate, with a

threeinch telescope. I am greatly indebted to the Earl of Crawford and Balcarres, who regularly sends me

circulars of all astronomical discoveries, both in this and foreign countries. I will give an instance of the

usefulness of these circulars. On the morning of the 4th of October, 1880, a comet was discovered by

Hartwig, of Strasburg, in the constellation of Corona. He telegraphed it to Dunecht Observatory, fifteen miles

from Aberdeen. The circulars announcing the discovery were printed and despatched by post to various

astronomers. My circular reached me by 7 P.M., and, the night being favourable, I directed my telescope

upon the part of the heavens indicated, and found the comet almost at oncethat is, within fifteen hours of

"In April, 1878, a large meteor was observed in broad daylight, passing from south to north, and falling it was

supposed, about twenty miles south of Ballater. Mr. A. S. Herschel, Professor of Physics in the College of

Science, 'NewcastleonTyne, published a letter in The Scotsmam, intimating his desire to be informed of

the particulars of the meteor's flight by those who had seen it. As I was one of those who had observed the

splendid meteor flash northwards almost under the face of the bright sun (at 10.25 A.M), I sent the Professor

a full account of what I had seen, for which he professed his strong obligations. This led to a very pleasant

correspondence with Professor Herschel. After this, I devoted considerable attention to meteors, and sent

"You ask me what are the hours at which I make my observations? I am due at the railway station at six in the

morning, and I leave at six in the evening; but I have two hours during the day for meals and rest. Sometimes

I get a glance at the heavens in the winter mornings when the sky is clear, hunting for comets. My

observations on the sun are usually made twice a day during my meal hours, or in the early morning or late at

evening in summer, while the sun is visible. Yes, you are right; I try and make the best use of my time. It is

much too short for all that I propose to do. My evenings are my own. When the heavens are clear, I watch

"Dr. Alexander Brown, of Arbroath, is one of my correspondents. I have sent him my drawings of the rings

of Saturn, of Jupiter's belt and satellites. Dr. Ralph Copeland, of Dunecht, is also a very good friend and

adviser. Occasionally, too, I send accounts of solar disturbances, comet a within sight, eclipses, and

occultations, to the Scotsman, the Dundee Evening Telegraph and Evening News, or to the Blairgowrie

Advertiser. Besides, I am the local observer of meteorology, and communicate regularly with Mr. Symons.

"Do I intend always to remain a railway porter? Oh, yes; I am very comfortable! The company are very kind

to me, and I hope I serve them faithfully. It is true Sheriff Barclay has, without my knowledge, recommended

me to several wellknown astronomers as an observer. But at my time of life changes are not to be desired. I

am quite satisfied to go on as I am doing. My young people are growing up, and are willing to work for

themselves. But come, sir," he concluded, "come into the garden, and look at the moon through my

We went into the garden accordingly, but a cloud was over the moon, and we could not see it. At the top of

the garden was the selfregistering barometer, the pitcher to measure the rainfall, and the other apparatus

necessary to enable the "Diagram of barometer, thermometer, rain, and wind" to be conducted, so far as

Coupar Angus is concerned. This Mr. Robertson has done for four years past. As the hour was late, and as I

A man's character often exhibits itself in his amusements. One must have a high respect for the character of

John Robertson, who looks at the manner in which he spends his spare time. His astronomical work is

altogether a labour of love. It is his hobby; and the working man may have his hobby as well as the rich. In

his case he is never less idle than when idle. Some may think that he is casting his bread upon the waters, and

that he may find it after many days. But it is not with this object that he carries on his leisurehour pursuits.

Some have tried sheriff Barclay among others[5]to obtain appointments for him in connection with

astronomical observation; others to secure advancement for him in his own line. But he is a man who is

satisfied with his lotone of the rarest things on earth. Perhaps it is by looking so much up to the heavens

Next morning I found him busy at the station, making arrangements for the departure of the passenger train

for Perth, and evidently upon the best of terms with everybody. And here I leave John Robertson, the

Some years ago I received from my friend Mr. Nasmyth a letter of introduction to the late Mr. Cooke of

York, while the latter was still living. I did not present it at the time; but I now proposed to visit, on my return

homewards, the establishment which he had founded at York for the manufacture of telescopes and other

optical instruments. Indeed, what a man may do for himself as well as for science, cannot be better illustrated

Mr. Nasmyth says that he had an account from Cooke himself of his small beginnings. He was originally a

shoemaker in a small country village. Many a man has risen to distinction from a shoemaker's seat. Bulwer,

in his 'What will He do with It?' has discussed the difference between shoemakers and tailors. "The one is

thrown upon his own resources, the other works in the company of his fellows: the one thinks, the other

Cooke was a man of natural ability, and he made the best use of his powers. Opportunity, sooner or later,

comes to nearly all who work and wait, and are duly persevering. Shoemaking was not found very

productive; and Cooke, being fairly educated as well as selfeducated, opened a village school. He succeeded

tolerably well. He taught himself geometry and mathematics, and daily application made him more perfect in

his studies. In course of time an extraordinary ambition took possession of him: no less than the construction

of a reflecting telescope of six inches diameter. The idea would not let him rest until he had accomplished his

purpose. He cast and polished the speculum with great labour; but just as he was about to finish it, the casting

broke! What was to be done? About onefifth had broken away, but still there remained a large piece, which

he proceeded to grind down to a proper diameter. His perseverance was rewarded by the possession of a 3 1/2

inch speculum, which by his rare skill he worked into a reflecting telescope of very good quality.

He was, however, so much annoyed by the treacherously brittle nature of the speculum metal that he

abandoned its use, and betook himself to glass. He found that before he could make a good achromatic

telescope it was necessary that he should calculate his curves from data depending upon the nature of the

glass. He accordingly proceeded to study the optical laws of refraction, in which his knowledge of geometry

and mathematics greatly helped him. And in course of time, by his rare and exquisite manipulative skill, he

succeeded in constructing a fourinch refractor, or achromatic telescope, of admirable defining power.

The excellence of his first works became noised abroad. Astronomical observers took an interest in him; and

friends began to gather round him, amongst others the late Professor Phillips and the Rev. Vernon Harcourt,

Dean of York. Cooke received an order for a telescope like his own; then he received other orders. At last he

gave up teaching, and took to telescope making. He advanced step by step; and like a practical, thoughtful

man, he invented special tools and machinery for the purpose of grinding and polishing his glasses. He

opened a shop in York, and established himself as a professed maker of telescopes. He added to this the

business of a general optician, his wife attending to the sale in the shop, while he himself attended to the

Such was the excellence of his work that the demand for his telescopes largely increased. They were not only

better manufactured, but greatly cheaper than those which had before been in common use. Three of the

London makers had before possessed a monopoly of the business; but now the trade was thrown open by the

enterprise of Cooke of York. He proceeded to erect a complete factorythe Buckingham Street works. His

brother took charge of the grinding and polishing of the lenses, while his sons attended to the mechanism of

the workshop; but Cooke himself was the master spirit of the whole concern. Everything that he did was good

and accurate. His clocks were about the best that could be made. He carried out his clockmaking business

with the same zeal that he devoted to the perfection of his achromatic telescopes. His work was always

firstrate. There was no scamping about it. Everything that he did was thoroughly good and honest. His 4

1/4inch equatorials are perfect gems; and his admirable achromatics, many of them of the largest class, are

known all over the world. Altogether, Thomas Cooke was a remarkable instance of the power of SelfHelp.

Such was the story of his Life, as communicated by Mr. Nasmyth. I was afterwards enabled, through the kind

assistance of his widow, Mrs. Cooke, whom I saw at Saltburn, in Yorkshire, to add a few particulars to his

"My husband," she said, "was the son of a working shoemaker at Pocklington, in the East Riding. He was

born in 1807. His father's circumstances were so straitened that he was not able to do much for him; but he

sent him to the National school, where he received some education. He remained there for about two years,

and then he was put to his father's trade. But he greatly disliked shoemaking, and longed to get away from it.

He liked the sun, the sky, and the open air. He was eager to be a sailor, and, having heard of the voyages of

Captain Cook, he wished to go to sea. He spent his spare hours in learning navigation, that he might be a

good seaman. But when he was ready to set out for Hull, the entreaties and tears of his mother prevailed on

him to give up the project; and then he had to consider what he should do to maintain himself at home.

"He proceeded with his selfeducation, and with such small aids as he could procure, he gathered together a

good deal of knowledge. He thought that he might be able to teach others. Everybody liked him, for his

diligence, his application, and his good sense. At the age of seventeen he was employed to teach the sons of

the neighbouring farmers. He succeeded so well that in the following year he opened a village school at

Beilby. He went on educating himself, and learnt a little of everything. He next removed his school to

Kirpenbeck, near Stamford Bridge; and it was there," proceeded Mrs. Cooke, "that I got to know him, for I

"He first learned mathematics by buying an old volume at a bookstall, with a spare shilling. That was before

he began to teach. He also got odd sheets, and read other books about geometry and mathematics, before he

could buy them; for he had very little to spare. He studied and learnt as much as he could.

He was very anxious to get an insight into knowledge. He studied optics before he had any teaching. Then he

tried to turn his knowledge to account. While at Kirpenbeck he made his first objectglass out of a thick

tumbler bottom. He ground the glass cleverly by hand; then he got a piece of tin and soldered it together, and

"He next got a situation at the Rev. Mr. Shapkley's school in Micklegate, York, where he taught mathematics.

He also taught in ladies' schools in the city, and did what he could to make a little income. Our intimacy had

increased, and we had arranged to get married. He was twentyfour, and I was nineteen, when we were

"Professor Phillips saw his first telescope, with the objectglass made out of the thick tumbler bottom, and he

was so much pleased with it that my husband made it over to him. But he also got an order for another, from

Mr. Gray, solicitor, more by way of encouragement than because Mr. Gray wanted it, for he was a most kind

man. The objectglass was of fourinch aperture, and when mounted the defining power was found

excellent. My husband was so successful with his telescopes that he went on from smaller to greater, and at

length he began to think of devoting himself to optics altogether. His knowledge of mathematics had led him

"During this time he had continued his teaching at the school in the daytime; and he also taught on his own

account the sons of gentlemen in the evening: amongst others the sons of Dr. Wake and Dr. Belcomb, both

medical men. He was only making about 100L. a year, and his family was increasing. It was necessary to be

very economical, and I was careful of everything. At length my uncle Milner agreed to advance about 100L.

as a loan. A shop was taken in Stonegate in 1836, and provided with optical instruments. I attended to the

shop, while my husband worked in the back premises. To bring in a little ready money, I also took in lodgers.

"My husband now devoted himself entirely to telescope making and optics. But he took in other work. His

pumps were considered excellent; and he furnished all those used at the pumproom, Harrogate. His clocks,

telescopedriving[6] and others, were of the best. He commenced turretclock making in 1852, and made

many improvements in them. We had by that time removed to Coney Street; and in 1855 the Buckingham

Works were established, where a large number of firstrate workmen were employed. A place was also taken

in Southampton Street, London, in 1868, for the sale of the instruments manufactured at York."

Thus far Mrs. Cooke. It may be added that Thomas Cooke revived the art of making refracting telescopes in

England. Since the discovery by Dollond, in 1758, of the relation between the refractive and dispersive

powers of different kinds of glass, and the invention by that distinguished optician of the achromatic

telescope, the manufacture of that instrument had been confined to England, where the best flint glass was

made. But through the shortsighted policy of the Government, an exorbitant duty was placed upon the

manufacture of flint glass, and the English trade was almost entirely stamped out. We had accordingly to look

to foreign countries for the further improvement of the achromatic telescope, which Dollond had so much

A humble mechanic of Brenetz, in the Canton of Neufchatel, Switzerland, named Guinaud, having directed

his attention to the manufacture of flint glass towards the close of last century, at length succeeded, after

persevering efforts, in producing masses of that substance perfectly free from stain, and therefore adapted for

Frauenhofer, the Bavarian optician, having just begun business, heard of the wonderful success of Guinaud,

and induced the Swiss mechanic to leave Brenetz and enter into partnership with him at Munich in 1805.

The result was perfectly successful; and the new firm turned out some of the largest objectglasses which had

until then been made. With one of these instruments, having an aperture of 9.9 inches, Struve, the Russian

astronomer, made some of his greatest discoveries. Frauenhofer was succeeded by Merz and Mahler, who

carried out his views, and turned out the famous refractors of Pulkowa Observatory in Russia, and of Harvard

University in the United States. These last two telescopes contained objectglasses of fifteen inches aperture.

The pernicious impost upon flint glass having at length been removed by the English Government, an

opportunity was afforded to our native opticians to recover the supremacy which they had so long lost. It is to

Thomas Cooke, more than to any other person, that we owe the recovery of this manufacture. Mr. Lockyer,

writing in 1878, says: "The two largest and most perfectly mounted refractors on the German form at present

in existence are those at Gateshead and Washington, U.S. The former belongs to Mr. Newall, a gentleman

who, connected with those who were among the first to recognise the genius of our great English optician,

Cooke, did not hesitate to risk thousands of pounds in one great experiment, the success of which will have a

The progress which Mr. Cooke made in his enterprise was slow but steady. Shortly after he began business as

an optician, he became dissatisfied with the method of handpolishing, and made arrangements to polish the

objectglasses by machinery worked by steam power. By this means he secured perfect accuracy of figure.

He was also able to turn out a large quantity of glasses, so as to furnish astronomers in all parts of the world

with telescopes of admirable defining power, at a comparatively moderate price. In all his works he

endeavoured to introduce simplicity. He left his mark on nearly every astronomical instrument. He found the

equatorial comparatively clumsy; he left it nearly perfect. His beautiful "dividing machine," for marking

divisions on the circles, four feet in diameter and altogether selfactingwhich divides to five minutes and

The following are some of his more important achromatic telescopes. In 1850, when he had been fourteen

years in business, he furnished his earliest patron, Professor Phillips, with an equatorial telescope of 6 1/4

inches aperture. His second (of 6 1/8) was supplied two years later, to James Wigglesworth of Wakefield.

William Gray, Solicitor, of York, one of his earliest friends, bought a 6 1/2inch telescope in 1853. In the

following year, Professor Pritchard of Oxford was supplied with a 6 1/2inch. The other important

instruments were as follows: in 1854, Dr. Fisher, Liverpool, 6 inches; in 1855, H. L. Patterson, Gateshead, 7

1/4 inches; in 1858, J. G. Barclay, Layton, Essex, 7 1/4 inches; in 1857, Isaac Fletcher, Cockermouth, 9 1/4

inches; in l858, Sir W. Keith Murray, Ochtertyre, Crieff, 9 inches; in 1859, Captain Jacob, 9 inches; in 1860,

James Nasmyth, Penshurst, 8 inches; in 1861, another telescope to J. G. Barclay, 10 inches; in 1864, the Rev.

W. R. Dawes, Haddenham, Berks, 8 inches; and in 1867, Edward Crossley, Bermerside, Halifax, 9 3/8

In 1855 Mr. Cooke obtained a silver medal at the first Paris Exhibition for a sixinch equatorial telescope.[8]

This was the highest prize awarded. A few years later he was invited to Osborne by the late Prince Albert, to

discuss with his Royal Highness the particulars of an equatorial mounting with a clock movement, for which

he subsequently received the order. On its completion he superintended the erection of the telescope, and had

the honour of directing it to several of the celestial objects for the Queen and the Princess Alice, and

answered their many interesting questions as to the stars and planets within sight.

Mr. Cooke was put to his mettle towards the close of his life. A contest had long prevailed among telescope

makers as to who should turn out the largest refracting instrument. The two telescopes of fifteen inches

aperture, prepared by Merz and Mahler, of Munich, were the largest then in existence. Their size was thought

quite extraordinary. But in 1846, Mr. Alvan Clark, of Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, U.S., spent his leisure

hour's in constructing small telescopes.[9] He was not an optician, nor a mathematician, but a portrait painter.

He possessed, however, enough knowledge of optics and of mechanics, to enable him to make and judge a

telescope. He spent some ten years in grinding lenses, and was at length enabled to produce objectives equal

In 1853, the Rev. W. E. Dawesone of Mr. Cooke's customers purchased an objectglass from Mr.

Clark. It was so satisfactory that he ordered several others, and finally an entire telescope. The American

artist then began to be appreciated in his own country. In 1860 he received an order for a refractor of eighteen

inches aperture, three inches greater than the largest which had up to that time been made. This telescope was

intended for the Observatory of Mississippi; but the Civil War prevented its being removed to the South; and

the telescope was sold to the Astronomical Society of Chicago and mounted in the Observatory of that city.

And now comes in the rivalry of Mr. Cooke of York, or rather of his patron, Mr. Newall of Gateshead. At the

Great Exhibition of London, in 1862, two large circular blocks of glass, about two inches thick and

twentysix inches in diameter, were shown by the manufacturers, Messrs. Chance of Birmingham. These

discs were found to be of perfect quality, and suitable for objectglasses of the best kind. At the close of the

Exhibition, they were purchased by Mr. Newall, and transferred to the workshops of Messrs. Cooke and Sons

at York. To grind and polish and mount these discs was found a work of great labour and difficulty. Mr.

Lockyer says, "such an achievement marks an epoch in telescopic astronomy, and the skill of Mr. Cooke and

When finished, the objectglass had an aperture of nearly twentyfive inches, and was of much greater

power than the eighteeninch Chicago instrument. The length of the tube was about thirtytwo feet. The

castiron pillar supporting the whole was nineteen feet in height from the ground, and the weight of the

whole instrument was about six tons. In preparing this telescope, nearly everything, from its extraordinary

size, had to be specially arranged.[10] The great anxiety involved in these arrangements, and the constant

study and application told heavily upon Mr. Cooke, and though the instrument wanted only a few touches to

make it complete, his health broke down, and he died on the l9th of October, 1868, at the comparatively early

Mr. Cooke's death was felt, in a measure, to be a national loss. His science and skill had restored to England

the prominent position she had held in the time of Dollond; and, had he lived, even more might have been

expected from him. We believe that the Gold Medal and Fellowship of the Royal Society were waiting for

him; but, as one of his friends said to his widow, "neither worth nor talent avails when the great ordeal is

presented to us." In a letter from Professor Pritchard, he said: "Your husband has left his mark upon his age.

No optician of modern times has gained a higher reputation; and I for one do not hesitate to call his loss

national; for he cannot be replaced at present by any one else in his own peculiar line. I shall carry the

recollection of the affectionate esteem in which I held Thomas Cooke with me to my grave. Alas! that he

should be cut off just at the moment when he was about to reap the rewards due to his unrivalled excellence. I

have said that F.R.S. and medals were to be his. But he is, we fondly trust, in a better and higher state than

that of earthly distinction. Best assured, your husband's name must ever be associated with the really great

Mr. Cooke left behind him the great works which he founded in Buckingham Street, York. They still give

employment to a large number of skilled and intelligent artizans. There I found many important works in

progress,the manufacture of theodolites, of prismatic compasses (for surveying), of Bolton's range finder,

and of telescopes above all. In the factory yard was the commencement of the Observatory for Greenwich, to

contain the late Mr. Lassell's splendid two feet Newtonian reflecting telescope, which has been presented to

the nation. Mr. Cooke's spirit still haunts the works, which are carried on with the skill, the vigour, and the

While at York, I was informed by Mr. Wigglesworth, the partner of Messrs. Cooke, of an energetic young

astronomer at Bainbridge, in the mountaindistrict of Yorkshire, who had not only been able to make a

telescope of his own, but was an excellent photographer. He was not yet thirty years of age, but had

encountered and conquered many difficulties. This is a sort of character which is more often to be met with in

remote country places than in thicklypeopled cities. In the country a man is more of an individual; in a city

he is only one of a multitude. The country boy has to rely upon himself, and has to work in comparative

solitude, while the city boy is distracted by excitements. Life in the country is full of practical teachings;

whereas life in the city may be degraded by frivolities and pleasures, which are too often the foes of work.

Hence we have usually to go to outoftheway corners of the country for our hardest brainworkers.

Contact with the earth is a great restorer of power; and it is to the country folks that we must ever look for the

Bainbridge is a remote country village, situated among the high lands or Fells on the northwestern border of

Yorkshire. The mountains there send out great projecting buttresses into the dales; and the waters rush down

from the hills, and form waterfalls or Forces, which Turner has done so much to illustrate. The river Bain

runs into the Yore at Bainbridge, which is supposed to be the site of an old Roman station. Over the door of

the Grammar School is a mermaid, said to have been found in a camp on the top of Addleborough, a

remarkable limestone hill which rises to the southeast of Bainbridge. It is in this grammarschool that we

find the subject of this little autobiography. He must be allowed to tell the story of his lifewhich he

"I was born on November 20th, 1853. In my childhood I suffered from illhealth. My parents let me play

about in the open air, and did not put me to school until I had turned my sixth year. One day, playing in the

shoemaker's shop, William Farrel asked me if I knew my letters. I answered 'No.' He then took down a primer

from a shelf, and began to teach me the alphabet, at the same time amusing me by likening the letters to

familiar objects in his shop. I soon learned to read, and in about six weeks I surprised my father by reading

"My father then took me into the school, of which he was master, and my education may be said fairly to

have begun. My progress, however, was very slow partly owing to illhealth, but more, I must acknowledge,

to carelessness and inattention. In fact, during the first four years I was at school, I learnt very little of

anything, with the exception of reciting verses, which I seemed to learn without any mental effort. My

memory became very retentive. I found that by attentively reading half a page of print, or more, from any of

the schoolbooks, I could repeat the whole of it without missing a word. I can scarcely explain how I did it;

but I think it was by paying strict attention to the words as words, and forming a mental picture of the

paragraphs as they were grouped in the book. Certain, I am, that their sense never made much impression on

me, for, when questioned by the teacher, I was always sent to the bottom of the class, though apparently I had

"When I was twelve years old, I made the acquaintance of a very ingenious boy, who came to our school.

Samuel Bridge was a born mechanic. Though only a year older than myself, such was his ability in the use of

tools, that he could construct a model of any machine that he saw. He awakened in me a love of mechanical

construction, and together we made models of colliery windingframes, ironrolling mills, triphammers,

and waterwheels. Some of them were not mere toys, but constructed to scale, and were really good working

models. This love of mechanical construction has never left me, and I shall always remember with affection

Samuel Bridge, who first taught me to use the hammer and file. The last I heard of him was in 1875, when he

passed his examination as a schoolmaster, in honours, and was at the head of his list.

"During the next two years, when between twelve and fourteen, I made comparatively slow progress at

school. I remember having to write out the fourth commandment from memory. The teacher counted

twentythree mistakes in ten lines of my writing. It will be seen from this, that, as regards learning, I

continued heedless and backward. About this time, my father, who was a good violinist, took me under his

tuition. He made me practice on the violin about an hour and a half a day. I continued this for a long time.

But the result was failure. I hated the violin, and would never play unless compelled to do so. I suppose the

"It was different with subjects more to my mind. Looking over my father's books one day, I came upon

Gregory's 'Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry,' and began reading it. I was fascinated with the book, and

studied it morning, noon, and nightin fact, every time when I could snatch a few minutes. I really believe

that at one time I could have repeated the whole of the book from memory. Now I found the value of

arithmetic, and set to work in earnest on proportion, vulgar and decimal fractions, and, in fact, everything in

school work that I could turn to account in the science of chemistry. The result of this sudden application was

that I was seized with an illness. For some months I had incessant headache; my hair became dried up, then

turned grey, and finally came off. Weighing myself shortly after my recovery, at the age of fifteen, I found

that I just balanced fiftysix pounds. I took up mensuration, then astronomy, working at them slowly, but

"In the year 1869, when I was sixteen years old, I came across Cuthbert Bede's book, entitled 'Photographic

Pleasures.' It is an amusing book, giving an account of the rise and progress of photography, and at the same

time having a goodnatured laugh at it. I read the book carefully, and took up photography as an amusement,

using some apparatus which belonged to my father, who had at one time dabbled in the art. I was soon able to

take fair photographs. I then decided to try photography as a business. I was apprenticed to a photographer,

and spent four years with himone year at Northallerton, and three at Darlington. When my employer

"Having read an account of the experiments of M. E. Becquerel, a French savant, on photographing in the

colours of nature, my curiosity was awakened. I carefully repeated his experiments, and convinced myself

that he was correct. I continued my experiments in heliochromy for a period of about two years, during which

time I made many photographs in colours, and discovered a method of developing the coloured image, which

enabled me to shorten the exposure to onefortieth of the previouslyrequired time. During these

experiments, I came upon some curious results, which, I think, might puzzle our scientific men to account

for. For instance, I proved the existence of black light, or rays of such a nature as to turn the rosecoloured

surface of the sensitiveplate blackthat is, rays reflected from the black paint of drapery, produced black in

the picture, and not the effect of darkness. I was, like Becquerel, unable to fix the coloured image without

destroying the colours; though the plates would keep a long while in the dark, and could be examined in a

subdued, though not in a strong light. The coloured image was faint, but the colours came out with great truth

"I began to attend the School of Art at Darlington on the 6th of March, 1872. I found, on attempting to draw,

that I had naturally a correct eye and hand; and I made such progress, that when the students' drawings were

examined, previously to sending them up to South Kensington, all my work was approved. I was then set to

draw from the cast in chalk, although I had only been at the school for a month. I tried for all the four subjects

at the May examination, and was fortunate enough to pass three of them, and obtained as a prize Packett's

'Sciography.' I worked hard during the next year, and sent up seventeen works; for one of these, the 'Venus de

"I then commenced the study of human anatomy, and began watercolour painting, reading all the works

upon art on which I could lay my hand. At the May examination of 1873, I completed my secondgrade

certificate, and at the end of the year of my studentship, I accepted the office of teacher in the School of Art.

This arttraining created in me a sort of disgust for photography, as I saw that the science of photography had

really very little genuine art in it, and was more allied to a mechanical pursuit than to an artistic one. Now,

when I look back on my past ideas, I clearly see that a great deal of this disgust was due to my ignorance and

"In 1874, I commenced painting in tempora, and then in oil, copying the pictures lent to the school from the

South Kensington Art Library. I worked also from still life, and began sketching from nature in oil and

watercolours, sometimes selling my work to help me to buy materials for artwork and scientific

experiments. I was, however, able to do very little in the following year, as I was at home suffering from

sciatica. For nine months I could not stand erect, but had to hobble about with a stick. This illness caused me

"Early in 1876 I returned to Darlington. I went on with my art studies and the science of chemistry; though I

went no further in heliochromy. I pushed forward with anatomy. I sent about fifteen works to South

Kensington, and gained as my thirdgrade prize in list A the 'Dictionary of Terms used in Art' by Thomas

Fairholt, which I found a very useful work. Towards the end of the year, my father, whose health was

declining, sent for me home to assist him in the school. I now commenced the study of Algebra and Euclid in

good earnest, but found it tough work. My father, though a fair mathematician, was unable to give me any

instruction; for he had been seized with paralysis, from which he never recovered. Before he died, he

recommended me to try for a schoolmaster's certificate; and I promised him that I would. I obtained a

situation as master of a small village school, not under Government inspection; and I studied during the year,

and obtained a second class certificate at the Durham Diocesan College at Christmas, 1877. Early in the

following year, the school was placed under Government inspection, and became a little more remunerative.

"I now went on with chemical analysis, making my own apparatus. Requiring an intense heat on a small

scale, I invented a furnace that burnt petroleum oil. It was blown by compressed air. After many failures, I

eventually succeeded in bringing it to such perfection that in 7 1/2 minutes it would bring four ounces of steel

into a perfectly liquefied state. I next commenced the study of electricity and magnetism; and then acoustics,

light, and heat. I constructed all my apparatus myself, and acquired the art of glassblowing, in order to make

"I then went on with Algebra and Euclid, and took up plane trigonometry; but I devoted most of my time to

electricity and magnetism. I constructed various scientific apparatusa syren, telephones, microphones, an

Edison's megaphone, as well as an electrometer, and a machine for covering electric wire with cotton or silk.

A friend having lent me a work on artificial memory, I began to study it; but the work led me into nothing but

confusion, and I soon found that if I did not give it up, I should be left with no memory at all. I still went an

sketching from Nature, not so much as a study, but as a means of recruiting my health, which was far from

being good. At the beginning of 1881 I obtained my present situation as assistant master at the Yorebridge

"Soon after I became settled here, I spent some of my leisure time in reading Emerson's 'Optics,' a work I

bought at an old bookstall. I was not very successful with it, owing to my deficient mathematical knowledge.

On the May Science Examinations of 1881 taking place at NewcastleonTyne, applied for permission to sit,

and obtained four tickets for the following subjects: Mathematics, Electricity and Magnetism, Acoustics,

Light and Heat, and Physiography. During the preceding month I had read up the first three subjects, but,

being pressed for time, I gave up the idea of taking physiography. However, on the last night of the

examinations, I had some conversation with one of the students as to the subjects required for physiography.

He said, 'You want a little knowledge of everything in a scientific way, and nothing much of anything.' I

determined to try, for 'nothing much of anything' suited me exactly. I rose early next morning, and as soon as

the shops were open I went and bought a book on the subject, 'Outlines of Physiography,' by W. Lawson,

F.R.G.S. I read it all day, and at night sat for the examination. The results of my examinations were, failure in

mathematics, but second class advanced grade certificates in all the others. I do not attach any credit to

passing in physiography, but merely relate the circumstance as curiously showing what can be done by a

"The failure in mathematics caused me to take the subject 'by the horns,' to see what I could do with it. I

began by going over quadratic equations, and I gradually solved the whole of those given in Todhunter's

larger 'Algebra.' Then I reread the progressions, permutations, combinations; the binomial theorem, with

indices and surds; the logarithmic theorem and series, converging and diverging. I got Todhunter's larger

'Plane Trigonometry,' and read it, with the theorems contained in it; then his 'Spherical Trigonometry;' his

'Analytical Geometry, of Two Dimensions,' and 'Conics.' I next obtained De Morgan's 'Differential and

Integral Calculus,' then Woolhouse's, and lastly, Todhunter's. I found this department of mathematics difficult

and perplexing to the last degree; but I mastered it sufficiently to turn it to some account. This last

mathematical course represents eighteen months of hard work, and I often sat up the whole night through.

"Wanting some object on which to apply my newlyacquired mathematical knowledge, I determined to

construct an astronomical telescope. I got Airy's 'Geometrical Optics,' and read it through. Then I searched

through all my English Mechanic (a scientific paper that I take), and prepared for my work by reading all the

literature on the subject that I could obtain. I bought two discs of glass, of 6 1/2 inches diameter, and began to

grind them to a spherical curve 12 feet radius. I got them hollowed out, but failed in fining them through lack

of skill. This occurred six times in succession; but at the seventh time the polish came up beautifully, with

scarcely a scratch upon the surface. Stopping my work one night, and it being starlight, I thought I would try

the mirror on a star. I had a wooden frame ready for the purpose, which the carpenter had made for me. Judge

of my surprise and delight when I found that the star disc enlarged nearly in the same manner from each side

of the focal point, thus making it extremely probable that I had accidentally hit on a near approach to the

And such proved to be the case. I have the mirror still, and its performance is very good indeed.

"I went no further with this mirror, for fear or spoiling it. It is very slightly grey in the centre, but not

sufficiently so as to materially injure its performance. I mounted it in a wooden tube, placed it on a wooden

stand, and used it for a time thus mounted; but getting disgusted with the tremor and inconvenience I had to

put up with, I resolved to construct for it an iron equatorial stand. I made my patterns, got them cast, turned

and fitted them myself, grinding all the working parts together with emery and oil, and fitted a tangentscrew

motion to drive the instrument in right ascension. Now I found the instrument a pleasure to use; and I

determined to add to it divided circles, and to accurately adjust it to the meridian. I made my circles of

wellseasoned mahogany, with slips of paper on their edges, dividing them with my drawing instruments,

and varnishing them to keep out the wet. I shall never forget that sunny afternoon upon which I computed the

hourangle for Jupiter, and set the instrument so that by calculation Jupiter should pass through the field of

the instrument at 1h. 25m. 15s. With my watch in my hand, and my eye to the eyepiece, I waited for the orb.

When his glorious face appeared, almost in a direct line for the centre of the field, I could not contain my joy,

but shouted out as loudly as I could,greatly to the astonishment of old George Johnson, the miller, who

"Now, though I had obtained what I wanteda fairly good instrument,still I was not quite satisfied; as I

had produced it by a fortunate chance, and not by skill alone. I therefore set to work again on the other disc of

glass, to try if I could finish it in such a way as to excel the first one. After nearly a year's work I found that I

could only succeed in equalling it. But then, during this time, I had removed the working of mirrors from

mere chance to a fair amount of certainty. By bringing my mathematical knowledge to bear on the subject, I

had devised a method of testing and measuring my work which, I am happy to say, has been fairly successful,

and has enabled me to produce the spherical, elliptic, parabolic, or hyperbolic curve in my mirrors, with

almost unvarying success. The study of the practical working of specula and lenses has also absorbed a good

deal of my spare time during the last two years, and the work involved has been scarcely less difficult.

Altogether, I consider this last year (18823) to mark the busiest period of my life.

"It will be observed that I have only given an account of those branches of study in which I have put to

practical test the deductions from theoretical reasoning. I am at present engaged on the theory of the

achromatic objectglass, with regard to spherical chromatisma subject upon which, I believe, nearly all

our textbooks are silent, but one nevertheless of vital importance to the optician. I can only proceed very

slowly with it, on account of having to grind and figure lenses for every step of the theory, to keep myself in

the right track; as mere theorizing is apt to lead one very much astray, unless it be checked by constant

experiment. For this particular subject, lenses must be ground firstly to spherical, and then to curves of conic

sections, so as to eliminate spherical aberration from each lens; so that it will be observed that this subject is

"About a month ago (September, 1883), I determined to put to the test the statement of some of our theorists,

that the surface of a rotating fluid is either a parabola or a hyperbola. I found by experiment that it is neither,

but an approximation to the tractrix (a modification of the catenary), if anything definite; as indeed one, on

thinking over the matter, might feel certain it would bethe tractrix being the curve of least friction.

"In astronomy, I have really done very little beyond mere algebraical working of the fundamental theorems,

and a little casual observation of the telescope. So far, I must own, I have taken more pleasure in the theory

Such is Samuel Lancaster's history of the growth and development of his mind. I do not think there is

anything more interesting in the 'Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties.' His life has been a gallant

endeavour to win further knowledge, though too much at the expense of a constitution originally delicate. He

pursues science with patience and determination, and wooes truth with the ardour of a lover. Eulogy of his

character would here be unnecessary; but, if he takes due care of his health, we shall hear more of him.[11]

More astronomers in humble life! There seems to to be no end of them. There must be a great fascination in

looking up to the heavens, and seeing those wondrous worlds careering in the faroff infinite. Let me look

back to the names I have introduced in this chapter of autobiography. First, there was my worthy porter friend

at Coupar Angus station, enjoying himself with his threeinch objectglass. Then there was the shoemaker

and teacher, and eventually the firstrate maker of achromatic instruments. Look also at the persons whom he

supplied with his best telescopes. Among them we find princes, baronets, clergymen, professors, doctors,

solicitors, manufacturers, and inventors. Then we come to the portrait painter, who acquired the highest

supremacy in the art of telescope making; then to Mr. Lassell, the retired brewer, whose daughters presented

his instrument to the nation; and, lastly, to the extraordinary young schoolmaster of Bainbridge, in Yorkshire.

And now before I conclude this last chapter, I have to relate perhaps the most extraordinary story of allthat

of another astronomer in humble life, in the person of a slate counter at Port Penrhyn, Bangor, North Wales.

While at Birnam, I received a letter from my old friend the Rev. Charles Wicksteed, formerly of Leeds,

calling my attention to this case, and inclosing an extract from the letter of a young lady, one of his

correspondents at Bangor. In that letter she said: "What you write of Mr. Christmas Evans reminds me very

much of a visit I paid a few evenings ago to an old man in Upper Bangor. He works on the Quay, but has a

very decided taste for astronomy, his leisure time being spent in its study, with a great part of his earnings. I

went there with some friends to see an immense telescope, which he has made almost entirely without aid,

preparing the glasses as far as possible himself, and sending them away merely to have their concavity

changed. He showed us all his treasures with the greatest delight, explaining in English, but substituting

Welsh when at a loss. He has scarcely ever been at school, but has learnt English entirely from books. Among

other things he showed us were a Greek Testament and a Hebrew Bible, both of which he can read. His

largest telescope, which is several yards long, he has named 'Jumbo,' and through it he told us he saw the

snowcap on the pole of Mars. He had another smaller telescope, made by himself, and had a spectroscope in

process of making. He is now quite old, but his delight in his studies is still unbounded and unabated. It

Mr. Wicksteed was very much interested in the case, and called my attention to it, that I might add the story

to my repertory of selfhelping men. While at York I received a communication from Miss Grace Ellis, the

young lady in question, informing me of the name of the astronomerJohn Jones, Albert Street, Upper

Bangorand intimating that he would be glad to see me any evening after six. As railways have had the

effect of bringing places very close together in point of timemaking of Britain, as it were, one great

townand as the autumn was brilliant, and the holiday season not at an end, I had no difficulty in diverging

from my journey, and taking Bangor on my way homeward. Starting from York in the morning, and passing

through Leeds, Manchester, and Chester, I reached Bangor in the afternoon, and had my first interview with

I found him, as Miss Grace Ellis had described, active, vigorous, and intelligent; his stature short, his face

wellformed, his eyes keen and bright. I was first shown into his little parlour downstairs, furnished with his

books and some of his instruments; I was then taken to his tiny room upstairs, where he had his big reflecting

telescope, by means of which he had seen, through the chamber window, the snowcap of Mars. He is so fond

of philology that I found he had no fewer than twentysix dictionaries, all bought out of his own earnings. "I

am fond of all knowledge," he said"of Reuben, Dan, and Issachar; but I have a favourite, a Benjamin, and

that is Astronomy. I would sell all of them into Egypt, but preserve my Benjamin." His story is briefly as

"I was born at Bryngwyn Bach, Anglesey, in 1818, and I am sixtyfive years old. I got the little education I

have, when a boy. Owen Owen, who was a cousin of my mother's, kept a school at a chapel in the village of

Dwyrain, in Anglesey. It was said of Owen that he never had more than a quarter of a year's schooling, so

that he could not teach me much. I went to his school at seven, and remained with him about a year. Then he

left; and some time afterwards I went for a short period to an old preacher's school, at Brynsieneyn chapel.

There I learnt but little, the teacher being negligent. He allowed the children to play together too much, and

he punished them for slight offences, making them obstinate and disheartened. But I remember his once

saying to the other children, that I ran through my little lesson 'like a coach.' However, when I was about

twelve years old, my father died, and in losing him I lost almost all the little I had learnt during the short

"In this state of ignorance I remained for years, until the time came when on Sunday I used to saddle the old

black mare for Cadwalladr Williams, the Calvinist Methodist preacher, at Pen Ceint, Anglesey; and after he

had ridden away, I used to hide in his library during the sermon, and there I learnt a little that I shall not soon

forget. In that way I had many a draught of knowledge, as it were, by stealth. Having a strong taste for music,

I was much attracted by choral singing; and on Sundays and in the evenings I tried to copy out airs from

different books, and accustomed my hand a little to writing. This tendency was, however, choked within me

by too much work with the cattle, and by other farm labour. In a word, I had but little fair weather in my

search for knowledge. One thing enticed me from another, to the detriment of my plans; some fair Eve often

"The old preacher's books at Pen Ceint were in Welsh. I had not yet learned English, but tried to learn it by

comparing one line in the English New Testament with the same line in the Welsh. This was the Hamiltonian

method, and the way in which I learnt most languages. I first got an idea of astronomy from reading 'The

Solar System,' by Dr. Dick, translated into Welsh by Eleazar Roberts of Liverpool. That book I found on

Sundays in the preacher's library; and many a sublime thought it gave me. It was comparatively easy to

"When I was about thirty I was taken very ill, and could no longer work. I then went to Bangor to consult Dr.

Humphrys. After I got better I found work at the Port at 12s. a week. I was employed in counting the slates,

or loading the ships in the harbour from the railway trucks. I lodged in Fwn Deg, near where Hugh Williams,

Gatehouse, then kept a navigation school for young sailors. I learnt navigation, and soon made considerable

progress. I also learnt a little arithmetic. At first nearly all the young men were more advanced than myself;

but before I left matters were different, and the Scripture words became verified "the last shall be first." I

remained with Hugh Williams six months and a half. During that time I went twice through the 'Tutor's

Assistant,' and a month before I left I was taught mensuration. That is all the education I received, and the

"I got to know English pretty well, though Welsh was the language of those about me. From easy books I

went to those more difficult. I was helped in my pronunciation of English by comparing the words with the

phonetic alphabet, as published by Thomas Gee of Denbigh, in 1853. With my spare earnings I bought books,

especially when my wages began to rise. Mr. Wyatt, the steward, was very kind, and raised my pay from time

to time at his pleasure. I suppose I was willing, correct, and faithful. I improved my knowledge by reading

books on astronomy. I got, amongst others, 'The Mechanism of the Heavens,' by Denison Olmstead, an

American; a very understandable book. Learning English, which was a foreign language to me, led me to

learn other languages. I took pleasure in finding out the roots or radixes of words, and from time to time I

added foreign dictionaries to my little library. But I took most pleasure in astronomy.

"The perusal of Sir John Herschel's 'Outlines of Astronomy,' and of his 'Treatise on the Telescope,' set my

mind on fire. I conceived the idea of making a telescope of my own, for I could not buy one. While reading

the Mechanics' Magazine I observed the accounts of men who made telescopes. Why should not I do the

same? Of course it was a matter of great difficulty to one who knew comparatively little of the use of tools.

But I had a willing mind and willing hands. So I set to work. I think I made my first telescope about twenty

years ago. It was thirtysix inches long, and the tube was made of pasteboard. I got the glasses from

Liverpool for 4s. 6d. Captain Owens, of the ship Talacra, bought them. He also bought for me, at a bookstall,

the Greek Lexicon and the Greek New Testament, for which he paid 7s. 6d. With my new telescope I could

see Jupiter's four satellites, the craters on the moon, and some of the double stars. It was a wonderful pleasure

"But I was not satisfied with the instrument. I wanted a bigger and a more perfect one. I sold it and got new

glasses from Solomon of London, who was always ready to trust me. I think it was about the year 1868 that I

began to make a reflecting telescope. I got a rough disc of glass, from St. Helens, of ten inches diameter. It

took me from nine to ten days to grind and polish it ready for parabolising and silvering. I did this by hand

labour with the aid of emery, but without a lathe. I finally used rouge instead of emery in grinding down the

glass, until I could see my face in the mirror quite plain. I then sent the 8 3/16 inch disc to Mr. George Calver,

of Chelmsford, to turn my spherical curve to a parabolic curve, and to silver the mirror, for which I paid him

5L. I mounted this in my timber tube; the focus was ten feet. When everything was complete I tried my

instrument on the sky, and found it to have good defining power. The diameter of the other glass I have made

"You ask me if their performance satisfies me? Well; I have compared my sixinch reflector with a 4 1/4

inch refractor, through my window, with a power of 100 and 140. I can't say which was the best. But if out on

a clear night I think my reflector would take more power than the refractor. However that may be, I saw the

snowcap on the planet Mars quite plain; and it is satisfactory to me so far. With respect to the 8 3/16 inch

glass, I am not quite satisfied with it yet; but I am making improvements, and I believe it will reward my

Besides these instruments John Jones has an equatorial which is mounted on a tripod stand, made by himself.

It contains the right ascension, declination, and azimuth index, all neatly carved upon slate. In his

spectroscope he makes his prisms out of the skylights used in vessels. These he grinds down to suit his

purpose. I have not been able to go into the complete detail of the manner in which he effects the grinding of

his glasses. It is perhaps too technical to be illustrated in words, which are full of focuses, parabolas, and

convexities. But enough may be gathered from the above account to give an idea of the wonderful tenacity of

this aged student, who counts his slates into the ships by day, and devotes his evenings to the perfecting of his

astronomical instruments. But not only is he an astronomer and a philologist; he is also a bard, and his poetry

is much admired in the district. He writes in Welsh, not in English, and signs himself "Ioan, of Bryngwyn

Bach," the place where he was born. Indeed, he is still at a loss for words when he speaks in English. He

usually interlards his conversation with passages in Welsh, which is his mothertongue. A friend has,

however, done me the favour to translate two of John Jones's poems into English. The first is 'The

"To Heaven it points, where rules the Sun In golden gall'ries bright; And the pale Moon in silver rays Makes

"It sweeps with eagle glances The sky, its myriad throng, That myriad throng to marshal And bring to us their

"Orb upon orb it follows As oft they intertwine, And worlds in vast processions As if in battle line.

"It loves all things created, To follow and to trace; And never fears to penetrate The dark abyss of space."

"A maiden fair, with light of stars bedecked, Starts out of space at Jove's command; With visage wild, and

long dishevelled hair, Speeds she along her starry course; The hosts of heaven regards she not, Fain would

she scorn them all except her father Sol, Whose mighty influence her headlong course doth all control."

The following translation may also be given: it shows that the bard is not without a spice of wit. A

fellowworkman teased him to write some lines; when John Jones, in a seemingly innocent manner, put some

questions, and ascertained that he had once been a tailor. Accordingly this epigram was written, and appeared

"To thread and needle now goodbye, With slates I aim at riches; The scissors will I ne'er more ply, Nor

The bilingual speech is the great educational difficulty of Wales. To get an entrance into literature and

science requires a knowledge of English; or, if not of English, then of French or German. But the Welsh

language stands in the way. Few literary or scientific works are translated into Welsh. Hence the great

educational difficulty continues, and is maintained from year to year by patriotism and Eisteddfods.

Possibly the difficulties to be encountered may occasionally evoke unusual powers of study; but this can only

occur in exceptional cases. While at Bangor Mr. Cadwalladr Davies read to me the letter of a student and

professor, whose passion for knowledge is of an extraordinary character. While examined before the

Parliamentary Committee appointed to inquire into the condition of intermediate and higher education in

Wales and Monmouthshire, Mr. Davies gave evidence relating to this and other remarkable cases, of which

"The night schools in the quarry districts have been doing a very great work; and, if the Committee will allow

me, I will read an extract from a letter which I received from Mr. Bradley Jones, master of the Board Schools

at Llanarmon, near Mold, Flintshire, who some years ago kept a very flourishing night school in the

neighbourhood. He says: 'During the whole of the time (fourteen years) that I was at Carneddi, I carried on

these schools, and I believe I have had more experience of such institutions than any teacher in North Wales.

For several years about 120 scholars used to attend the Carneddi night school in the winter months, four

evenings a week. Nearly all were quarrymen, from fourteen to twentyone years of age, and engaged at work

from 7 A.M. to 5.30 P.M. So intense was their desire for education that some of them had to walk a distance

These, besides working hard all day, had to walk six miles in the one case and nine in the other before

schooltime, in addition to the walk home afterwards. Several of them used to attend all the year round, even

coming to me for lessons in summer before going to work, as well as in the evening. Indeed, so anxious were

some of them, that they would often come for lessons as early as five o'clock in the morning. This may

appear almost incredible, but any of the managers of the Carneddi School could corroborate the statement.'

"I have now in my mind's eye," continues Mr. Bradley, "several of these young men, who, by dint of

indefatigable labour and selfdenial, ultimately qualified themselves for posts in which a good education is a

sine qua non. Some of them are today quarry managers, professional men, certificated teachers, and

ministers of the Gospel. Five of them are at the present time students at Bala College. One got a situation in

the Glasgow Post Office as lettercarrier. During his leisure hours he attended the lectures at one of the

medical schools of that city, and in course of time gained his diploma. He is now practising as a surgeon, and

I understand with signal success. This gentleman worked in the Penrhyn Quarry until he was twenty years

old. I could give many more instances of the resolute and selfdenying spirit with which the young

quarrymen of Bethesda sought to educate themselves. The teachers of the other schools in that

neighbourhood could give similar examples, for during the winter months there used to be no less than 300

evening scholars under instruction in the different schools. The Bethesda booksellers could tell a tale that

would surprise our English friends. I have been informed by one of them that he has sold to young quarrymen

an immense number of such works as Lord Macaulay's, Stuart Mill's, and Professor Fawcett's; and it is no

uncommon sight to find these and similar works read and studied by the young quarrymen during the dinner

"I can give," proceeds Mr. Cadwalladr Davies, "one remarkable instance to show the struggles which young

Welshmen have to undertake in order to get education. The boy in question, the son of 'poor but honest

parents,' left the small national school of his native village when he was 12 1/2 years of age, and then

followed his father's occupation of shoemaking until he was 16 1/2 years of age. After working hard at his

trade for four years, he, his brother, and two fellow apprentices, formed themselves into a sort of club to learn

shorthand, the whole matter being kept a profound secret. They had no teachers, and they met at the

gasworks, sitting opposite the retorts on a bench supported at each end with bricks. They did not penetrate

far into the mysteries of Welsh shorthand; they soon abandoned the attempt, and induced the village

This, however, did not last long. The young Crispin was returning late one night from Llanrwst in company

with a lad of the same age, and both having heard much of the blessings of education from a Scotch lady who

took a kindly interest in them, their ambition was inflamed, and they entered into a solemn compact that they

would thenceforward devote themselves body and soul to the attainment of an academical degree. Yet they

were both poor. One was but a shoemaker's apprentice, while the other was a pupil teacher earning but a

miserable weekly pittance. One could do the parts of speech; the other could not. One had struggled with the

pans asinorum; the other had never seen it. I may mention that the young pupil teacher is now a curate in the

Church of England. He is a graduate of Cambridge University and a prizeman of Clare College. But to return

"After returning home from Llanrwst, he disburthened his heart to his mother, and told her that shoemaking,

which until now he had pursued with extraordinary zest, could no longer interest him. His mother, who was

equal to the emergency, sent the boy to a teacher of the old school, who had himself worked his way from the

plough. After the exercise of considerable diplomacy, an arrangement was arrived at whereby the youth was

to go to school on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and make shoes during the remaining days of the

week. This suited him admirably. That very night he seized upon a geography, and began to learn the

counties of England and Wales. The fear of failure never left him for two hours together, except when he

slept. The plan of work was faithfully kept; though by this time shoemaking had lost its charms. He shortened

his sleeping hours, and rose at any moment that he awokeat two, three, or four in the morning. He got his

brother, who had been plodding with him over shorthand, to study horticulture, and fruit and vegetable

culture; and that brother shortly after took a high place in an examination held by the Royal Horticultural

Society. For a time, however, they worked together; and often did their mother get up at four o'clock in the

depth of winter, light their fire, and return to bed after calling them up to the work of selfculture. Even this

did not satisfy their devouring ambition. There was a bed in the workshop, and they obtained permission to

sleep there. Then they followed their own plans. The young gardener would sit up till one or two in the

morning, and wake his brother, who had gone to bed as soon as he had given up work the night before.

Now he got up and studied through the small hours of the morning until the time came when he had to

transfer his industry to shoemaking, or go to school on the appointed days after the distant eight o'clock had

come. His brother had got worn out. Early sleep seemed to be the best. They then both went to bed about

"So the struggle went on, until the faithful old schoolmaster thought that his young pupil might try the

examination at the Bangor Normal College. He was now eighteen years of age; and it was eighteen months

since the time when he began to learn the counties of England and Wales. He went to Bangor, rigged out in

his brother's coat and waistcoat, which were better than his own; and with his brother's watch in his pocket to

time himself in his examinations. He went through his examination, but returned home thinking he had failed.

Nevertheless, he had in the meantime, on the strength of a certificate which he had obtained six months

before, in an examination held by the Society of Arts and Sciences in Liverpool, applied for a situation as

teacher in a grammarschool at Ormskirk in Lancashire. He succeeded in his application, and had been there

for only eight days when he received a letter from Mr. Rowlands, Principal of the Bangor Normal College,

informing him that he had passed at the head of the list, and was the highest nonpupil teacher examined by

the British and Foreign Society. Having obtained permission from his master to leave, he packed his clothes

and his few books. He had not enough money to carry him home; but, unasked, the master of the school gave

him 10s. He arrived home about three o'clock on a Sunday morning, after a walk of eleven miles over a

lonely road from the place where the train had stopped. He reeled on the way, and found the country reeling

too. He had been sleeping eight nights in a damp bed. Six weeks of the Bangor Session passed, and during

that time he had been delirious, and was too weak to sit up in bed. But the second time he crossed the

threshold of his home he made for Bangor and got back his "position," which was all important to him, and

"Having finished his course at Bangor he went to keep a school at Brynaman; he endeavoured to study but

could not. After two years he gave up the school, and with 60L. saved he faced the world once more. There

was a scholarship of the value of 40L. a year, for three years, attached to one of the Scotch Universities, to be

competed for. He knew the Latin Grammar, and had, with help, translated one of the books of Caesar. Of

Greek he knew nothing, save the letters and the first declension of nouns; but in May he began to read in

earnest at a farmhouse. He worked every day from 6 A.M. to 12 P.M. with only an hour's intermission. He

studied the six Latin and two Greek books prescribed; he did some Latin composition unaided; brushed up

his mathematics; and learnt something of the history of Greece and Rome. In October, after five months of

hard work, he underwent an examination for the scholarship, and obtained it; beating his opponent by

twentyeight marks in a thousand. He then went up to the Scotch University and passed all the examinations

for his ordinary M.A. degree in two years and a half. On his first arrival at the University he found that he

could not sleep; but he wearily yet victoriously plodded on; took a prize in Greek, then the first prize in

philosophy, the second prize in logic, the medal in English literature, and a few other prizes.

"He had 40L. when he first arrived in Scotland; and he carried away with him a similar sum to Germany,

whither he went to study for honours in philosophy. He returned home with little in his pocket, borrowing

money to go to Scotland, where he sat for honours and for the scholarship. He got his first honours, and what

was more important at the time, money to go on with. He now lives on the scholarship which he took at that

time; is an assistant professor; and, in a fortnight, will begin a course of lectures for ladies in connection with

his university. Writing to me a few days ago,[13] he says, 'My health, broken down with my last struggle, is

quite restored, and I live with the hope of working on. Many have worked more constantly, but few have

worked more intensely. I found kindness on every hand always, but had I failed in a single instance I should

have met with entire bankruptcy. The failure would have been ruinous.... I thank God for the struggle, but

would not like to see a dog try it again. There are droves of lads in Wales that would creep up but they

The gentleman whose brief history is thus summarily given by Mr. Davies, is now well known as a professor

of philosophy; and, if his health be spared, he will become still better known. He is the author of several

important works on 'Moral Philosophy,' published by a leading London firm; and more works are announced

from his pen. The victorious struggle for knowledge which we have recounted might possibly be equalled,

but it could not possibly be surpassed. There are, however, as Mr. Davies related to the Parliamentary

Committee, many instances of Welsh students most of them originally quarrymenwho keep themselves

at school by means of the savings effected from manual labour, "in frequent cases eked out and helped by the

kindness of friends and neighbours," who struggle up through many difficulties, and eventually achieve

success in the best sense of the term. "One young man"as the teacher of a grammarschool, within two

miles of Bangor, related to Mr. Davies "who came to me from the quarry some time ago, was a gold

medallist at Edinburgh last winter;" and contributions are readily made by the quarrymen to help forward any

young man who displays an earnest desire for knowledge in science and literature.

It is a remarkable fact that the quarrymen of Carnarvonshire have voluntarily contributed large sums of

money towards the establishment of the University College in North Walesthe quarry districts in that

county having contributed to that fund, in the course of three years, mostly in halfcrown subscriptions, not

less than 508L. 4s. 4d. "a fact," says Mr. Davies, "without its parallel in the history of the education of any

country;" the most striking feature being, that these collections were made in support of an institution from

While I was at Bangor, on the 24th of August, 1883, the news arrived that the Committee of Selection had

determined that Bangor should be the site for the intended North Wales University College. The news rapidly

spread, and great rejoicings prevailed throughout the borough, which had just been incorporated. The

volunteer band played through the streets; the church bells rang merry peals; and gay flags were displayed

from nearly every window. There never was such a triumphant display before in the cause of University

As Mr. Cadwalladr Davies observed at the banquet, which took place on the following day: "The

establishment of the new institution will mark the dawn of a new era in the history of the Welsh people. He

looked to it, not only as a means of imparting academical knowledge to the students within its walls, but also

as a means of raising the intellectual and moral tone of the whole people. They were fond of quoting the

saying of a great English writer, that there was something Grecian in the Celtic race, and that the Celtic was

the refining element in the British character; but such remarks, often accompanied as they were with

offensive comparisons from Eisteddfod platforms, would in future be put to the test, for they would, with

their new educational machinery, be placed on a footing of perfect equality with the Scotch and the Irish

And here must come to an end the character history of my autumn tour in Ireland, Scotland, Yorkshire, and

Wales. I had not the remotest intention when setting out of collecting information and writing down my

recollections of the journey. But the persons I met, and the information I received, were of no small

interestat least to myself; and I trust that the reader will derive as much pleasure from perusing my

observations as I have had in collecting and writing them down. I do think that the remarkable persons whose

history and characters I have endeavoured, however briefly, to sketch, will be found to afford many valuable

and important lessons of SelfHelp; and to illustrate how the moral and industrial foundations of a country

[1] A "poet," who dates from "New York, March 1883," has published seven stanzas, entitled "Change here

"From early morn till late at e'en, John's honest face is to be seen, Bustling about the trains between, Be 't

sunshine or be 't showery; And as each one stops at his door, He greets it with the wellknown roar Of

'Change here for Blairgowrie.' Even when the still and drowsy night Has drawn the curtains of our sight,

John's watchful eyes become more bright, And take another glow'r aye Thro' yon blue dome of sparkling

stars Where Venus bright and ruddy Mars Shine down upon Blairgowrie. He kens each jinkin' comet's track,

And when it's likely to come back, When they have tails, and when they lack In heaven the waggish power

aye; When Jupiter's belt buckle hings, And the Pyx mark on Saturn's rings, He sees from near Blairgowrie."

[3] In an article on the subject in the Dundee Evening Telegraph, Mr. Robertson observes: "If our finite

minds were more capable of comprehension, what a glorious view of the grandeur of the Deity would be

displayed to us in the contemplation of the centre and source of light and heat to the solar system. The force

requisite to pour such continuous floods to the remotest parts of the system must ever baffle the mind of man

to grasp. But we are not to sit down in indolence: our duty is to inquire into Nature's works, though we can

never exhaust the field. Our minds cannot imagine motion without some Power moving through the medium

of some subordinate agency, ever acting on the sun, to send such floods of light and heat to our otherwise

cold and dark terrestrial ball; but it is the overwhelming magnitude of such power that we are incapable of

comprehending. The agency necessary to throw out the floods of flame seen during the few moments of a

total eclipse of the sun, and the power requisite to burst open a cavity in its surface, such as could entirely

[5] We regret to say that Sheriff Barclay died a few months ago, greatly respected by all who knew him.

[6] Sir E. Denison Beckett, in his Rudimentary Treatise on clocks and Watches and Bells, has given an

[8] This excellent instrument is now in the possession of my soninlaw, Dr. Hartree, of Leigh, near

[9] An interesting account of Mr. Alvan Clark is given in Professor Newcomb's 'Popular Astronomy,' p. 137.

[10] A photographic representation of this remarkable telescope is given as the frontispiece to Mr. Lockyer's

Stargazing, Past and Present; and a full description of the instrument is given in the text of the same work.

This refracting telescope did not long remain the largest. Mr. Alvan Clark was commissioned to erect a larger

equatorial for Washington Observatory; the objectglass (the rough disks of which were also furnished by

Messrs. Chance of Birmingham) exceeding in aperture that of Mr. Cooke's by only one inch. This was

finished and mounted in November, 1873. Another instrument of similar size and power was manufactured

by Mr. Clark for the University of Virginia. But these instruments did not long maintain their supremacy. In

1881, Mr. Howard Grubb, of Dublin, manufactured a still larger instrument for the Austrian

Governmentthe objectglass being of twentyseven inches aperture. But Mr. Alvan Clark was not to be

beaten. In 1882, he supplied the Russian Government with the largest refracting telescope in existence the

objectglass being of thirty inches diameter. Even this, however, is to be surpassed by the lens which Mr.

Clark has in hand for the Lick Observatory (California), which is to have a clear aperture of three feet in

[11] Since the above passage was written and in type, I have seen (in September 1884) the reflecting

telescope referred to at pp. 3578. It was mounted on its castiron equatorial stand, and at work in the field

adjoining the village green at Bainbridge, Yorkshire. The mirror of the telescope is 8 inches in diameter; its

focal length, 5 feet; and the tube in which it is mounted, about 6 feet long. The instrument seemed to me to

But Mr. Lancaster, like every eager astronomer, is anxious for further improvements. He considers the

achromatic telescope the king of instruments, and is now engaged in testing convex optical surfaces, with a

view to achieving a telescope of that description. The chief difficulty is the heavy charge for the circular

blocks of flint glass requisite for the work which he meditates. "That," he says, "is the great difficulty with

amateurs of my class." He has, however, already contrived and constructed a machine for grinding and

polishing the lenses in an accurate convex form, and it works quite satisfactorily. Mr. Lancaster makes his

own tools. From the raw material, whether of glass or steel, he produces the work required. As to tools, all

that he requires is a bar of steel and fire; his fertile brain and busy hands do the rest. I looked into the little

workshop behind his sittingroom, and found it full of ingenious adaptations. The turning lathe occupies a

considerable part of it; but when he requires more space, the village smith with his stithy, and the miller with

his waterpower, are always ready to help him. His tools, though not showy, are effective. His best lenses are

made by himself: those which he buys are not to be depended upon. The best flint glass is obtained from

I was attracted by a newly made machine, placed on a table in the sittingroom; and on inquiry found that its

object was to grind and polish lenses. Mr. Lancaster explained that the difficulty to be overcome in a good

machine, is to make the emery cut the surface equally from centre to edge of the lens, so that the lens will

neither lengthen nor shorten the curve during its production. To quote his words: "This really involves the

problem of the 'three bodies,' or disturbing forces so celebrated in dynamical mathematics, and it is further

complicated by another quantity, the 'coefficient of attrition,' or work done by the grinding material, as well

as the mischief done by capillary attractionand nodal points of superimposed curves in the path of the tool.

These complications tend to cause rings or waves of unequal wear in the surface of the glass, and ruin the

defining power of the lens, which depends upon the uniformity of its curve. As the outcome of much practical

experiment, combined with mathematical research, I settled upon the ratio of speed between the sheave of the

lenstool guide and the turntable; between whose limits the practical equalization of wear (or cut of the

emery) might with the greater facility be adjusted, by means of varying the stroke and eccentricity of the tool.

As the result of these considerations in the construction of the machine, the surface of the glass 'comes up'

regularly all over the lens; and the polishing only takes a few minutes' workthus keeping the truth of

The machine in question consists of a revolving sheave or ring, with a sliding strip across its diameter; the

said strip having a slot and clamping screw at one end, and a hole towards the other, through which passes the

axis of the tool used in forming the lens,the slot in the strip allowing the tool to give any stroke from 0 to

1.25 inch. The lens is carried on a revolving turntable, with an arrangement to allow the axis of the lens to

coincide with the axis of the table. The ratio of speed between the sheave and turntable is arranged by belt

and properly sized pulleys, and the whole can be driven either by hand or by power. The sheave merely

serves as a guide to the tool in its path, and the lens may either be worked on the turntable or upon a chuck

attached to the tool rod. The work upon the lens is thus to a great extent independent of the error of the

machine through shaking, or bad fitting, or wear; and the only part of the machine which requires really

firstclass work is the axis of the turntable, which (in this machine) is a conical bearing at top, with steel

centre below,the bearing turned, hardened, and then ground up true, and run in antifriction metal. Other

details might be given, but these are probably enough for present purposes. We hope, at some future time, for

a special detail of Mr. Lancaster's interesting investigations, from his own mind and pen.

[13] This evidence was given by Mr. W. Cadwalladr Davies on the 28th October, 1880.

6. CHAPTER II. FRANCIS PETTIT SMITH: PRACTICAL INTRODUCER OF THE SCREW PROPELLER., page = 25

7. CHAPTER III.[1] JOHN HARRISON: INVENTOR OF THE MARINE CHRONOMETER., page = 34

8. CHAPTER IV. JOHN LOMBE: INTRODUCER OF THE SILK INDUSTRY INTO ENGLAND., page = 48

10. CHAPTER VI. FREDERICK KOENIG: INVENTOR OF THE STEAM-PRINTING MACHINE., page = 68

11. CHAPTER VII. THE WALTERS OF THE TIMES: INVENTION OF THE WALTER PRESS., page = 79

12. CHAPTER VIII. WILLIAM CLOWES: INTRODUCER OF BOOK-PRINTING BY STEAM., page = 89

14. CHAPTER X. INDUSTRY IN IRELAND: THROUGH CONNAUGHT AND ULSTER, TO BELFAST., page = 108