Phaedrus..............................................................................................................................................................1

Plato.........................................................................................................................................................1

The Phaedrus is closely connected with the Symposium, and may be regarded either as introducing or

following it. The two Dialogues together contain the whole philosophy of Plato on the nature of love, which

in the Republic and in the later writings of Plato is only introduced playfully or as a figure of speech. But in

the Phaedrus and Symposium love and philosophy join hands, and one is an aspect of the other. The spiritual

and emotional part is elevated into the ideal, to which in the Symposium mankind are described as looking

forward, and which in the Phaedrus, as well as in the Phaedo, they are seeking to recover from a former state

of existence. Whether the subject of the Dialogue is love or rhetoric, or the union of the two, or the relation of

philosophy to love and to art in general, and to the human soul, will be hereafter considered. And perhaps we

may arrive at some conclusion such as the followingthat the dialogue is not strictly confined to a single

subject, but passes from one to another with the natural freedom of conversation.

Phaedrus has been spending the morning with Lysias, the celebrated rhetorician, and is going to refresh

himself by taking a walk outside the wall, when he is met by Socrates, who professes that he will not leave

him until he has delivered up the speech with which Lysias has regaled him, and which he is carrying about

in his mind, or more probably in a book hidden under his cloak, and is intending to study as he walks. The

imputation is not denied, and the two agree to direct their steps out of the public way along the stream of the

Ilissus towards a planetree which is seen in the distance. There, lying down amidst pleasant sounds and

scents, they will read the speech of Lysias. The country is a novelty to Socrates, who never goes out of the

town; and hence he is full of admiration for the beauties of nature, which he seems to be drinking in for the

As they are on their way, Phaedrus asks the opinion of Socrates respecting the local tradition of Boreas and

Oreithyia. Socrates, after a satirical allusion to the 'rationalizers' of his day, replies that he has no time for

these 'nice' interpretations of mythology, and he pities anyone who has. When you once begin there is no end

of them, and they spring from an uncritical philosophy after all. 'The proper study of mankind is man;' and he

is a far more complex and wonderful being than the serpent Typho. Socrates as yet does not know himself;

and why should he care to know about unearthly monsters? Engaged in such conversation, they arrive at the

planetree; when they have found a convenient restingplace, Phaedrus pulls out the speech and reads:

The speech consists of a foolish paradox which is to the effect that the nonlover ought to be accepted rather

than the loverbecause he is more rational, more agreeable, more enduring, less suspicious, less hurtful, less

boastful, less engrossing, and because there are more of them, and for a great many other reasons which are

equally unmeaning. Phaedrus is captivated with the beauty of the periods, and wants to make Socrates say

that nothing was or ever could be written better. Socrates does not think much of the matter, but then he has

only attended to the form, and in that he has detected several repetitions and other marks of haste. He cannot

agree with Phaedrus in the extreme value which he sets upon this performance, because he is afraid of doing

injustice to Anacreon and Sappho and other great writers, and is almost inclined to think that he himself, or

rather some power residing within him, could make a speech better than that of Lysias on the same theme,

and also different from his, if he may be allowed the use of a few commonplaces which all speakers must

Phaedrus is delighted at the prospect of having another speech, and promises that he will set up a golden

statue of Socrates at Delphi, if he keeps his word. Some raillery ensues, and at length Socrates, conquered by

the threat that he shall never again hear a speech of Lysias unless he fulfils his promise, veils his face and

First, invoking the Muses and assuming ironically the person of the non lover (who is a lover all the same),

he will enquire into the nature and power of love. For this is a necessary preliminary to the other question

How is the nonlover to be distinguished from the lover? In all of us there are two principlesa better and a

worsereason and desire, which are generally at war with one another; and the victory of the rational is

called temperance, and the victory of the irrational intemperance or excess. The latter takes many forms and

has many bad namesgluttony, drunkenness, and the like. But of all the irrational desires or excesses the

greatest is that which is led away by desires of a kindred nature to the enjoyment of personal beauty. And this

Here Socrates fancies that he detects in himself an unusual flow of eloquencethis newlyfound gift he can

only attribute to the inspiration of the place, which appears to be dedicated to the nymphs. Starting again

from the philosophical basis which has been laid down, he proceeds to show how many advantages the

nonlover has over the lover. The one encourages softness and effeminacy and exclusiveness; he cannot

endure any superiority in his beloved; he will train him in luxury, he will keep him out of society, he will

deprive him of parents, friends, money, knowledge, and of every other good, that he may have him all to

himself. Then again his ways are not ways of pleasantness; he is mighty disagreeable; 'crabbed age and youth

cannot live together.' At every hour of the night and day he is intruding upon him; there is the same old

withered face and the remainder to matchand he is always repeating, in season or out of season, the praises

or dispraises of his beloved, which are bad enough when he is sober, and published all over the world when

he is drunk. At length his love ceases; he is converted into an enemy, and the spectacle may be seen of the

lover running away from the beloved, who pursues him with vain reproaches, and demands his reward which

the other refuses to pay. Too late the beloved learns, after all his pains and disagreeables, that 'As wolves love

lambs so lovers love their loves.' (Compare Char.) Here is the end; the 'other' or 'nonlover' part of the speech

had better be understood, for if in the censure of the lover Socrates has broken out in verse, what will he not

do in his praise of the nonlover? He has said his say and is preparing to go away.

Phaedrus begs him to remain, at any rate until the heat of noon has passed; he would like to have a little more

conversation before they go. Socrates, who has risen, recognizes the oracular sign which forbids him to

depart until he has done penance. His conscious has been awakened, and like Stesichorus when he had reviled

the lovely Helen he will sing a palinode for having blasphemed the majesty of love. His palinode takes the

Socrates begins his tale with a glorification of madness, which he divides into four kinds: first, there is the art

of divination or prophecythis, in a vein similar to that pervading the Cratylus and Io, he connects with

madness by an etymological explanation (mantike, manikecompare oionoistike, oionistike, ''tis all one

reckoning, save the phrase is a little variations'); secondly, there is the art of purification by mysteries;

thirdly, poetry or the inspiration of the Muses (compare Ion), without which no man can enter their temple.

All this shows that madness is one of heaven's blessings, and may sometimes be a great deal better than

sense. There is also a fourth kind of madnessthat of lovewhich cannot be explained without enquiring

All soul is immortal, for she is the source of all motion both in herself and in others. Her form may be

described in a figure as a composite nature made up of a charioteer and a pair of winged steeds. The steeds of

the gods are immortal, but ours are one mortal and the other immortal. The immortal soul soars upwards into

Now the use of the wing is to rise and carry the downward element into the upper worldthere to behold

beauty, wisdom, goodness, and the other things of God by which the soul is nourished. On a certain day Zeus

the lord of heaven goes forth in a winged chariot; and an array of gods and demigods and of human souls in

their train, follows him. There are glorious and blessed sights in the interior of heaven, and he who will may

freely behold them. The great vision of all is seen at the feast of the gods, when they ascend the heights of the

empyreanall but Hestia, who is left at home to keep house. The chariots of the gods glide readily upwards

and stand upon the outside; the revolution of the spheres carries them round, and they have a vision of the

world beyond. But the others labour in vain; for the mortal steed, if he has not been properly trained, keeps

them down and sinks them towards the earth. Of the world which is beyond the heavens, who can tell? There

is an essence formless, colourless, intangible, perceived by the mind only, dwelling in the region of true

knowledge. The divine mind in her revolution enjoys this fair prospect, and beholds justice, temperance, and

knowledge in their everlasting essence. When fulfilled with the sight of them she returns home, and the

charioteer puts up the horses in their stable, and gives them ambrosia to eat and nectar to drink. This is the

life of the gods; the human soul tries to reach the same heights, but hardly succeeds; and sometimes the head

of the charioteer rises above, and sometimes sinks below, the fair vision, and he is at last obliged, after much

contention, to turn away and leave the plain of truth. But if the soul has followed in the train of her god and

once beheld truth she is preserved from harm, and is carried round in the next revolution of the spheres; and if

always following, and always seeing the truth, is then for ever unharmed. If, however, she drops her wings

and falls to the earth, then she takes the form of man, and the soul which has seen most of the truth passes

into a philosopher or lover; that which has seen truth in the second degree, into a king or warrior; the third,

into a householder or moneymaker; the fourth, into a gymnast; the fifth, into a prophet or mystic; the sixth,

into a poet or imitator; the seventh, into a husbandman or craftsman; the eighth, into a sophist or demagogue;

the ninth, into a tyrant. All these are states of probation, wherein he who lives righteously is improved, and he

who lives unrighteously deteriorates. After death comes the judgment; the bad depart to houses of correction

under the earth, the good to places of joy in heaven. When a thousand years have elapsed the souls meet

together and choose the lives which they will lead for another period of existence. The soul which three times

in succession has chosen the life of a philosopher or of a lover who is not without philosophy receives her

wings at the close of the third millennium; the remainder have to complete a cycle of ten thousand years

before their wings are restored to them. Each time there is full liberty of choice. The soul of a man may

descend into a beast, and return again into the form of man. But the form of man will only be taken by the

soul which has once seen truth and acquired some conception of the universal:this is the recollection of the

knowledge which she attained when in the company of the Gods. And men in general recall only with

difficulty the things of another world, but the mind of the philosopher has a better remembrance of them. For

when he beholds the visible beauty of earth his enraptured soul passes in thought to those glorious sights of

justice and wisdom and temperance and truth which she once gazed upon in heaven. Then she celebrated holy

mysteries and beheld blessed apparitions shining in pure light, herself pure, and not as yet entombed in the

body. And still, like a bird eager to quit its cage, she flutters and looks upwards, and is therefore deemed mad.

Such a recollection of past days she receives through sight, the keenest of our senses, because beauty, alone

of the ideas, has any representation on earth: wisdom is invisible to mortal eyes. But the corrupted nature,

blindly excited by this vision of beauty, rushes on to enjoy, and would fain wallow like a brute beast in

sensual pleasures. Whereas the true mystic, who has seen the many sights of bliss, when he beholds a

godlike form or face is amazed with delight, and if he were not afraid of being thought mad he would fall

down and worship. Then the stiffened wing begins to relax and grow again; desire which has been

imprisoned pours over the soul of the lover; the germ of the wing unfolds, and stings, and pangs of birth, like

the cutting of teeth, are everywhere felt. (Compare Symp.) Father and mother, and goods and laws and

proprieties are nothing to him; his beloved is his physician, who can alone cure his pain. An apocryphal

sacred writer says that the power which thus works in him is by mortals called love, but the immortals call

him dove, or the winged one, in order to represent the force of his wingssuch at any rate is his nature. Now

the characters of lovers depend upon the god whom they followed in the other world; and they choose their

loves in this world accordingly. The followers of Ares are fierce and violent; those of Zeus seek out some

philosophical and imperial nature; the attendants of Here find a royal love; and in like manner the followers

of every god seek a love who is like their god; and to him they communicate the nature which they have

received from their god. The manner in which they take their love is as follows:

I told you about the charioteer and his two steeds, the one a noble animal who is guided by word and

admonition only, the other an illlooking villain who will hardly yield to blow or spur. Together all three,

who are a figure of the soul, approach the vision of love. And now a fierce conflict begins. The

illconditioned steed rushes on to enjoy, but the charioteer, who beholds the beloved with awe, falls back in

adoration, and forces both the steeds on their haunches; again the evil steed rushes forwards and pulls

shamelessly. The conflict grows more and more severe; and at last the charioteer, throwing himself

backwards, forces the bit out of the clenched teeth of the brute, and pulling harder than ever at the reins,

covers his tongue and jaws with blood, and forces him to rest his legs and haunches with pain upon the

ground. When this has happened several times, the villain is tamed and humbled, and from that time forward

the soul of the lover follows the beloved in modesty and holy fear. And now their bliss is consummated; the

same image of love dwells in the breast of either, and if they have selfcontrol, they pass their lives in the

greatest happiness which is attainable by manthey continue masters of themselves, and conquer in one of

the three heavenly victories. But if they choose the lower life of ambition they may still have a happy destiny,

though inferior, because they have not the approval of the whole soul. At last they leave the body and proceed

on their pilgrim's progress, and those who have once begun can never go back. When the time comes they

These are the blessings of love, and thus have I made my recantation in finer language than before: I did so in

order to please Phaedrus. If I said what was wrong at first, please to attribute my error to Lysias, who ought

to study philosophy instead of rhetoric, and then he will not mislead his disciple Phaedrus.

Phaedrus is afraid that he will lose conceit of Lysias, and that Lysias will be out of conceit with himself, and

leave off making speeches, for the politicians have been deriding him. Socrates is of opinion that there is

small danger of this; the politicians are themselves the great rhetoricians of the age, who desire to attain

immortality by the authorship of laws. And therefore there is nothing with which they can reproach Lysias in

And what is good or bad writing or speaking? While the sun is hot in the sky above us, let us ask that

question: since by rational conversation man lives, and not by the indulgence of bodily pleasures. And the

grasshoppers who are chirruping around may carry our words to the Muses, who are their patronesses; for the

grasshoppers were human beings themselves in a world before the Muses, and when the Muses came they

died of hunger for the love of song. And they carry to them in heaven the report of those who honour them on

The first rule of good speaking is to know and speak the truth; as a Spartan proverb says, 'true art is truth';

whereas rhetoric is an art of enchantment, which makes things appear good and evil, like and unlike, as the

speaker pleases. Its use is not confined, as people commonly suppose, to arguments in the law courts and

speeches in the assembly; it is rather a part of the art of disputation, under which are included both the rules

of Gorgias and the eristic of Zeno. But it is not wholly devoid of truth. Superior knowledge enables us to

deceive another by the help of resemblances, and to escape from such a deception when employed against

ourselves. We see therefore that even in rhetoric an element of truth is required. For if we do not know the

truth, we can neither make the gradual departures from truth by which men are most easily deceived, nor

Socrates then proposes that they shall use the two speeches as illustrations of the art of rhetoric; first

distinguishing between the debatable and undisputed class of subjects. In the debatable class there ought to be

a definition of all disputed matters. But there was no such definition in the speech of Lysias; nor is there any

order or connection in his words any more than in a nursery rhyme. With this he compares the regular

divisions of the other speech, which was his own (and yet not his own, for the local deities must have inspired

him). Although only a playful composition, it will be found to embody two principles: first, that of synthesis

or the comprehension of parts in a whole; secondly, analysis, or the resolution of the whole into parts. These

are the processes of division and generalization which are so dear to the dialectician, that king of men. They

are effected by dialectic, and not by rhetoric, of which the remains are but scanty after order and arrangement

have been subtracted. There is nothing left but a heap of 'ologies' and other technical terms invented by Polus,

Theodorus, Evenus, Tisias, Gorgias, and others, who have rules for everything, and who teach how to be

short or long at pleasure. Prodicus showed his good sense when he said that there was a better thing than

Still, notwithstanding the absurdities of Polus and others, rhetoric has great power in public assemblies. This

power, however, is not given by any technical rules, but is the gift of genius. The real art is always being

confused by rhetoricians with the preliminaries of the art. The perfection of oratory is like the perfection of

anything else; natural power must be aided by art. But the art is not that which is taught in the schools of

rhetoric; it is nearer akin to philosophy. Pericles, for instance, who was the most accomplished of all

speakers, derived his eloquence not from rhetoric but from the philosophy of nature which he learnt of

Anaxagoras. True rhetoric is like medicine, and the rhetorician has to consider the natures of men's souls as

the physician considers the natures of their bodies. Such and such persons are to be affected in this way, such

and such others in that; and he must know the times and the seasons for saying this or that. This is not an easy

I know that there are some professors of the art who maintain probability to be stronger than truth. But we

maintain that probability is engendered by likeness of the truth which can only be attained by the knowledge

of it, and that the aim of the good man should not be to please or persuade his fellowservants, but to please

Enough of the art of speaking; let us now proceed to consider the true use of writing. There is an old Egyptian

tale of Theuth, the inventor of writing, showing his invention to the god Thamus, who told him that he would

only spoil men's memories and take away their understandings. From this tale, of which young Athens will

probably make fun, may be gathered the lesson that writing is inferior to speech. For it is like a picture, which

can give no answer to a question, and has only a deceitful likeness of a living creature. It has no power of

adaptation, but uses the same words for all. It is not a legitimate son of knowledge, but a bastard, and when

an attack is made upon this bastard neither parent nor anyone else is there to defend it. The husbandman will

not seriously incline to sow his seed in such a hotbed or garden of Adonis; he will rather sow in the natural

soil of the human soul which has depth of earth; and he will anticipate the inner growth of the mind, by

writing only, if at all, as a remedy against old age. The natural process will be far nobler, and will bring forth

The conclusion of the whole matter is just this,that until a man knows the truth, and the manner of

adapting the truth to the natures of other men, he cannot be a good orator; also, that the living is better than

the written word, and that the principles of justice and truth when delivered by word of mouth are the

legitimate offspring of a man's own bosom, and their lawful descendants take up their abode in others. Such

an orator as he is who is possessed of them, you and I would fain become. And to all composers in the world,

poets, orators, legislators, we hereby announce that if their compositions are based upon these principles, then

they are not only poets, orators, legislators, but philosophers. All others are mere flatterers and putters

together of words. This is the message which Phaedrus undertakes to carry to Lysias from the local deities,

and Socrates himself will carry a similar message to his favourite Isocrates, whose future distinction as a

great rhetorician he prophesies. The heat of the day has passed, and after offering up a prayer to Pan and the

There are two principal controversies which have been raised about the Phaedrus; the first relates to the

There seems to be a notion that the work of a great artist like Plato cannot fail in unity, and that the unity of a

dialogue requires a single subject. But the conception of unity really applies in very different degrees and

ways to different kinds of art; to a statue, for example, far more than to any kind of literary composition, and

to some species of literature far more than to others. Nor does the dialogue appear to be a style of

composition in which the requirement of unity is most stringent; nor should the idea of unity derived from

one sort of art be hastily transferred to another. The double titles of several of the Platonic Dialogues are a

further proof that the severer rule was not observed by Plato. The Republic is divided between the search

after justice and the construction of the ideal state; the Parmenides between the criticism of the Platonic ideas

and of the Eleatic one or being; the Gorgias between the art of speaking and the nature of the good; the

Sophist between the detection of the Sophist and the correlation of ideas. The Theaetetus, the Politicus, and

the Philebus have also digressions which are but remotely connected with the main subject.

Thus the comparison of Plato's other writings, as well as the reason of the thing, lead us to the conclusion that

we must not expect to find one idea pervading a whole work, but one, two, or more, as the invention of the

writer may suggest, or his fancy wander. If each dialogue were confined to the development of a single idea,

this would appear on the face of the dialogue, nor could any controversy be raised as to whether the Phaedrus

treated of love or rhetoric. But the truth is that Plato subjects himself to no rule of this sort. Like every great

artist he gives unity of form to the different and apparently distracting topics which he brings together. He

works freely and is not to be supposed to have arranged every part of the dialogue before he begins to write.

He fastens or weaves together the frame of his discourse loosely and imperfectly, and which is the warp and

The subjects of the Phaedrus (exclusive of the short introductory passage about mythology which is

suggested by the local tradition) are first the false or conventional art of rhetoric; secondly, love or the

inspiration of beauty and knowledge, which is described as madness; thirdly, dialectic or the art of

composition and division; fourthly, the true rhetoric, which is based upon dialectic, and is neither the art of

persuasion nor knowledge of the truth alone, but the art of persuasion founded on knowledge of truth and

knowledge of character; fifthly, the superiority of the spoken over the written word. The continuous thread

which appears and reappears throughout is rhetoric; this is the ground into which the rest of the Dialogue is

worked, in parts embroidered with fine words which are not in Socrates' manner, as he says, 'in order to

please Phaedrus.' The speech of Lysias which has thrown Phaedrus into an ecstacy is adduced as an example

of the false rhetoric; the first speech of Socrates, though an improvement, partakes of the same character; his

second speech, which is full of that higher element said to have been learned of Anaxagoras by Pericles, and

which in the midst of poetry does not forget order, is an illustration of the higher or true rhetoric. This higher

rhetoric is based upon dialectic, and dialectic is a sort of inspiration akin to love (compare Symp.); in these

two aspects of philosophy the technicalities of rhetoric are absorbed. And so the example becomes also the

deeper theme of discourse. The true knowledge of things in heaven and earth is based upon enthusiasm or

love of the ideas going before us and ever present to us in this world and in another; and the true order of

speech or writing proceeds accordingly. Love, again, has three degrees: first, of interested love corresponding

to the conventionalities of rhetoric; secondly, of disinterested or mad love, fixed on objects of sense, and

answering, perhaps, to poetry; thirdly, of disinterested love directed towards the unseen, answering to

dialectic or the science of the ideas. Lastly, the art of rhetoric in the lower sense is found to rest on a

knowledge of the natures and characters of men, which Socrates at the commencement of the Dialogue has

Thus amid discord a harmony begins to appear; there are many links of connection which are not visible at

first sight. At the same time the Phaedrus, although one of the most beautiful of the Platonic Dialogues, is

also more irregular than any other. For insight into the world, for sustained irony, for depth of thought, there

is no Dialogue superior, or perhaps equal to it. Nevertheless the form of the work has tended to obscure some

The first speech is composed 'in that balanced style in which the wise love to talk' (Symp.). The

characteristics of rhetoric are insipidity, mannerism, and monotonous parallelism of clauses. There is more

Plato has seized by anticipation the spirit which hung over Greek literature for a thousand years afterwards.

Yet doubtless there were some who, like Phaedrus, felt a delight in the harmonious cadence and the pedantic

reasoning of the rhetoricians newly imported from Sicily, which had ceased to be awakened in them by really

great works, such as the odes of Anacreon or Sappho or the orations of Pericles. That the first speech was

really written by Lysias is improbable. Like the poem of Solon, or the story of Thamus and Theuth, or the

funeral oration of Aspasia (if genuine), or the pretence of Socrates in the Cratylus that his knowledge of

philology is derived from Euthyphro, the invention is really due to the imagination of Plato, and may be

compared to the parodies of the Sophists in the Protagoras. Numerous fictions of this sort occur in the

Dialogues, and the gravity of Plato has sometimes imposed upon his commentators. The introduction of a

considerable writing of another would seem not to be in keeping with a great work of art, and has no parallel

In the second speech Socrates is exhibited as beating the rhetoricians at their own weapons; he 'an

unpractised man and they masters of the art.' True to his character, he must, however, profess that the speech

which he makes is not his own, for he knows nothing of himself. (Compare Symp.) Regarded as a rhetorical

exercise, the superiority of his speech seems to consist chiefly in a better arrangement of the topics; he begins

with a definition of love, and he gives weight to his words by going back to general maxims; a lesser merit is

the greater liveliness of Socrates, which hurries him into verse and relieves the monotony of the style.

But Plato had doubtless a higher purpose than to exhibit Socrates as the rival or superior of the Athenian

rhetoricians. Even in the speech of Lysias there is a germ of truth, and this is further developed in the parallel

oration of Socrates. First, passionate love is overthrown by the sophistical or interested, and then both yield to

that higher view of love which is afterwards revealed to us. The extreme of commonplace is contrasted with

the most ideal and imaginative of speculations. Socrates, half in jest and to satisfy his own wild humour,

takes the disguise of Lysias, but he is also in profound earnest and in a deeper vein of irony than usual.

Having improvised his own speech, which is based upon the model of the preceding, he condemns them both.

Yet the condemnation is not to be taken seriously, for he is evidently trying to express an aspect of the truth.

To understand him, we must make abstraction of morality and of the Greek manner of regarding the relation

of the sexes. In this, as in his other discussions about love, what Plato says of the loves of men must be

transferred to the loves of women before we can attach any serious meaning to his words. Had he lived in our

times he would have made the transposition himself. But seeing in his own age the impossibility of woman

being the intellectual helpmate or friend of man (except in the rare instances of a Diotima or an Aspasia),

seeing that, even as to personal beauty, her place was taken by young mankind instead of womankind, he tries

to work out the problem of love without regard to the distinctions of nature. And full of the evils which he

recognized as flowing from the spurious form of love, he proceeds with a deep meaning, though partly in

We may raise the same question in another form: Is marriage preferable with or without love? 'Among

ourselves,' as we may say, a little parodying the words of Pausanias in the Symposium, 'there would be one

answer to this question: the practice and feeling of some foreign countries appears to be more doubtful.'

Suppose a modern Socrates, in defiance of the received notions of society and the sentimental literature of the

day, alone against all the writers and readers of novels, to suggest this enquiry, would not the younger 'part of

the world be ready to take off its coat and run at him might and main?' (Republic.) Yet, if like Peisthetaerus

in Aristophanes, he could persuade the 'birds' to hear him, retiring a little behind a rampart, not of pots and

dishes, but of unreadable books, he might have something to say for himself. Might he not argue, 'that a

rational being should not follow the dictates of passion in the most important act of his or her life'? Who

would willingly enter into a contract at first sight, almost without thought, against the advice and opinion of

his friends, at a time when he acknowledges that he is not in his right mind? And yet they are praised by the

authors of romances, who reject the warnings of their friends or parents, rather than those who listen to them

in such matters. Two inexperienced persons, ignorant of the world and of one another, how can they be said

to choose?they draw lots, whence also the saying, 'marriage is a lottery.' Then he would describe their way

of life after marriage; how they monopolize one another's affections to the exclusion of friends and relations:

how they pass their days in unmeaning fondness or trivial conversation; how the inferior of the two drags the

other down to his or her level; how the cares of a family 'breed meanness in their souls.' In the fulfilment of

military or public duties, they are not helpers but hinderers of one another: they cannot undertake any noble

enterprise, such as makes the names of men and women famous, from domestic considerations. Too late their

eyes are opened; they were taken unawares and desire to part company. Better, he would say, a 'little love at

the beginning,' for heaven might have increased it; but now their foolish fondness has changed into mutual

dislike. In the days of their honeymoon they never understood that they must provide against offences, that

they must have interests, that they must learn the art of living as well as loving. Our misogamist will not

appeal to Anacreon or Sappho for a confirmation of his view, but to the universal experience of mankind.

How much nobler, in conclusion, he will say, is friendship, which does not receive unmeaning praises from

novelists and poets, is not exacting or exclusive, is not impaired by familiarity, is much less expensive, is not

so likely to take offence, seldom changes, and may be dissolved from time to time without the assistance of

the courts. Besides, he will remark that there is a much greater choice of friends than of wivesyou may

have more of them and they will be far more improving to your mind. They will not keep you dawdling at

home, or dancing attendance upon them; or withdraw you from the great world and stirring scenes of life and

In such a manner, turning the seamy side outwards, a modern Socrates might describe the evils of married

and domestic life. They are evils which mankind in general have agreed to conceal, partly because they are

compensated by greater goods. Socrates or Archilochus would soon have to sing a palinode for the injustice

done to lovely Helen, or some misfortune worse than blindness might be fall them. Then they would take up

their parable again and say:that there were two loves, a higher and a lower, holy and unholy, a love of the

But this true love of the mind cannot exist between two souls, until they are purified from the grossness of

earthly passion: they must pass through a time of trial and conflict first; in the language of religion they must

be converted or born again. Then they would see the world transformed into a scene of heavenly beauty; a

divine idea would accompany them in all their thoughts and actions. Something too of the recollections of

childhood might float about them still; they might regain that old simplicity which had been theirs in other

days at their first entrance on life. And although their love of one another was ever present to them, they

would acknowledge also a higher love of duty and of God, which united them. And their happiness would

depend upon their preserving in them this principle not losing the ideals of justice and holiness and truth,

but renewing them at the fountain of light. When they have attained to this exalted state, let them marry

(something too may be conceded to the animal nature of man): or live together in holy and innocent

friendship. The poet might describe in eloquent words the nature of such a union; how after many struggles

the true love was found: how the two passed their lives together in the service of God and man; how their

characters were reflected upon one another, and seemed to grow more like year by year; how they read in one

another's eyes the thoughts, wishes, actions of the other; how they saw each other in God; how in a figure

they grew wings like doves, and were 'ready to fly away together and be at rest.' And lastly, he might tell

how, after a time at no long intervals, first one and then the other fell asleep, and 'appeared to the unwise' to

die, but were reunited in another state of being, in which they saw justice and holiness and truth, not

according to the imperfect copies of them which are found in this world, but justice absolute in existence

absolute, and so of the rest. And they would hold converse not only with each other, but with blessed souls

everywhere; and would be employed in the service of God, every soul fulfilling his own nature and character,

and would see into the wonders of earth and heaven, and trace the works of creation to their author.

So, partly in jest but also 'with a certain degree of seriousness,' we may appropriate to ourselves the words of

Plato. The use of such a parody, though very imperfect, is to transfer his thoughts to our sphere of religion

and feeling, to bring him nearer to us and us to him. Like the Scriptures, Plato admits of endless applications,

if we allow for the difference of times and manners; and we lose the better half of him when we regard his

Dialogues merely as literary compositions. Any ancient work which is worth reading has a practical and

speculative as well as a literary interest. And in Plato, more than in any other Greek writer, the local and

transitory is inextricably blended with what is spiritual and eternal. Socrates is necessarily ironical; for he has

to withdraw from the received opinions and beliefs of mankind. We cannot separate the transitory from the

permanent; nor can we translate the language of irony into that of plain reflection and common sense. But we

can imagine the mind of Socrates in another age and country; and we can interpret him by analogy with

reference to the errors and prejudices which prevail among ourselves. To return to the Phaedrus:

Both speeches are strongly condemned by Socrates as sinful and blasphemous towards the god Love, and as

worthy only of some haunt of sailors to which good manners were unknown. The meaning of this and other

wild language to the same effect, which is introduced by way of contrast to the formality of the two speeches

(Socrates has a sense of relief when he has escaped from the trammels of rhetoric), seems to be that the two

speeches proceed upon the supposition that love is and ought to be interested, and that no such thing as a real

or disinterested passion, which would be at the same time lasting, could be conceived. 'But did I call this

"love"? O God, forgive my blasphemy. This is not love. Rather it is the love of the world. But there is another

kingdom of love, a kingdom not of this world, divine, eternal. And this other love I will now show you in a

Then follows the famous myth, which is a sort of parable, and like other parables ought not to receive too

minute an interpretation. In all such allegories there is a great deal which is merely ornamental, and the

interpreter has to separate the important from the unimportant. Socrates himself has given the right clue

when, in using his own discourse afterwards as the text for his examination of rhetoric, he characterizes it as a

'partly true and tolerably credible mythus,' in which amid poetical figures, order and arrangement were not

The soul is described in magnificent language as the selfmoved and the source of motion in all other things.

This is the philosophical theme or proem of the whole. But ideas must be given through something, and under

the pretext that to realize the true nature of the soul would be not only tedious but impossible, we at once pass

on to describe the souls of gods as well as men under the figure of two winged steeds and a charioteer. No

connection is traced between the soul as the great motive power and the triple soul which is thus imaged.

There is no difficulty in seeing that the charioteer represents the reason, or that the black horse is the symbol

of the sensual or concupiscent element of human nature. The white horse also represents rational impulse, but

the description, 'a lover of honour and modesty and temperance, and a follower of true glory,' though similar,

does not at once recall the 'spirit' (thumos) of the Republic. The two steeds really correspond in a figure more

nearly to the appetitive and moral or semirational soul of Aristotle. And thus, for the first time perhaps in

the history of philosophy, we have represented to us the threefold division of psychology. The image of the

charioteer and the steeds has been compared with a similar image which occurs in the verses of Parmenides;

but it is important to remark that the horses of Parmenides have no allegorical meaning, and that the poet is

only describing his own approach in a chariot to the regions of light and the house of the goddess of truth.

The triple soul has had a previous existence, in which following in the train of some god, from whom she

derived her character, she beheld partially and imperfectly the vision of absolute truth. All her after existence,

passed in many forms of men and animals, is spent in regaining this. The stages of the conflict are many and

various; and she is sorely let and hindered by the animal desires of the inferior or concupiscent steed. Again

and again she beholds the flashing beauty of the beloved. But before that vision can be finally enjoyed the

The moral or spiritual element in man is represented by the immortal steed which, like thumos in the

Republic, always sides with the reason. Both are dragged out of their course by the furious impulses of desire.

In the end something is conceded to the desires, after they have been finally humbled and overpowered. And

yet the way of philosophy, or perfect love of the unseen, is total abstinence from bodily delights. 'But all men

cannot receive this saying': in the lower life of ambition they may be taken off their guard and stoop to folly

unawares, and then, although they do not attain to the highest bliss, yet if they have once conquered they may

The language of the Meno and the Phaedo as well as of the Phaedrus seems to show that at one time of his

life Plato was quite serious in maintaining a former state of existence. His mission was to realize the abstract;

in that, all good and truth, all the hopes of this and another life seemed to centre. To him abstractions, as we

call them, were another kind of knowledgean inner and unseen world, which seemed to exist far more truly

than the fleeting objects of sense which were without him. When we are once able to imagine the intense

power which abstract ideas exercised over the mind of Plato, we see that there was no more difficulty to him

in realizing the eternal existence of them and of the human minds which were associated with them, in the

past and future than in the present. The difficulty was not how they could exist, but how they could fail to

exist. In the attempt to regain this 'saving' knowledge of the ideas, the sense was found to be as great an

enemy as the desires; and hence two things which to us seem quite distinct are inextricably blended in the

Thus far we may believe that Plato was serious in his conception of the soul as a motive power, in his

reminiscence of a former state of being, in his elevation of the reason over sense and passion, and perhaps in

his doctrine of transmigration. Was he equally serious in the rest? For example, are we to attribute his

tripartite division of the soul to the gods? Or is this merely assigned to them by way of parallelism with men?

The latter is the more probable; for the horses of the gods are both white, i.e. their every impulse is in

harmony with reason; their dualism, on the other hand, only carries out the figure of the chariot. Is he serious,

again, in regarding love as 'a madness'? That seems to arise out of the antithesis to the former conception of

love. At the same time he appears to intimate here, as in the Ion, Apology, Meno, and elsewhere, that there is

a faculty in man, whether to be termed in modern language genius, or inspiration, or imagination, or idealism,

or communion with God, which cannot be reduced to rule and measure. Perhaps, too, he is ironically

repeating the common language of mankind about philosophy, and is turning their jest into a sort of earnest.

(Compare Phaedo, Symp.) Or is he serious in holding that each soul bears the character of a god? He may

have had no other account to give of the differences of human characters to which he afterwards refers. Or,

again, in his absurd derivation of mantike and oionistike and imeros (compare Cratylus)? It is characteristic

of the irony of Socrates to mix up sense and nonsense in such a way that no exact line can be drawn between

As is often the case in the parables and prophecies of Scripture, the meaning is allowed to break through the

figure, and the details are not always consistent. When the charioteers and their steeds stand upon the dome

of heaven they behold the intangible invisible essences which are not objects of sight. This is because the

force of language can no further go. Nor can we dwell much on the circumstance, that at the completion of

ten thousand years all are to return to the place from whence they came; because he represents their return as

dependent on their own good conduct in the successive stages of existence. Nor again can we attribute

anything to the accidental inference which would also follow, that even a tyrant may live righteously in the

condition of life to which fate has called him ('he aiblins might, I dinna ken'). But to suppose this would be at

variance with Plato himself and with Greek notions generally. He is much more serious in distinguishing men

from animals by their recognition of the universal which they have known in a former state, and in denying

that this gift of reason can ever be obliterated or lost. In the language of some modern theologians he might

be said to maintain the 'final perseverance' of those who have entered on their pilgrim's progress. Other

intimations of a 'metaphysic' or 'theology' of the future may also be discerned in him: (1) The moderate

predestinarianism which here, as in the Republic, acknowledges the element of chance in human life, and yet

asserts the freedom and responsibility of man; (2) The recognition of a moral as well as an intellectual

principle in man under the image of an immortal steed; (3) The notion that the divine nature exists by the

contemplation of ideas of virtue and justiceor, in other words, the assertion of the essentially moral nature

of God; (4) Again, there is the hint that human life is a life of aspiration only, and that the true ideal is not to

be found in art; (5) There occurs the first trace of the distinction between necessary and contingent matter; (6)

The conception of the soul itself as the motive power and reason of the universe.

The conception of the philosopher, or the philosopher and lover in one, as a sort of madman, may be

compared with the Republic and Theaetetus, in both of which the philosopher is regarded as a stranger and

monster upon the earth. The whole myth, like the other myths of Plato, describes in a figure things which are

beyond the range of human faculties, or inaccessible to the knowledge of the age. That philosophy should be

represented as the inspiration of love is a conception that has already become familiar to us in the

Symposium, and is the expression partly of Plato's enthusiasm for the idea, and is also an indication of the

real power exercised by the passion of friendship over the mind of the Greek. The master in the art of love

knew that there was a mystery in these feelings and their associations, and especially in the contrast of the

sensible and permanent which is afforded by them; and he sought to explain this, as he explained universal

ideas, by a reference to a former state of existence. The capriciousness of love is also derived by him from an

attachment to some god in a former world. The singular remark that the beloved is more affected than the

lover at the final consummation of their love, seems likewise to hint at a psychological truth.

It is difficult to exhaust the meanings of a work like the Phaedrus, which indicates so much more than it

expresses; and is full of inconsistencies and ambiguities which were not perceived by Plato himself. For

example, when he is speaking of the soul does he mean the human or the divine soul? and are they both

equally selfmoving and constructed on the same threefold principle? We should certainly be disposed to

reply that the selfmotive is to be attributed to God only; and on the other hand that the appetitive and

passionate elements have no place in His nature. So we should infer from the reason of the thing, but there is

no indication in Plato's own writings that this was his meaning. Or, again, when he explains the different

characters of men by referring them back to the nature of the God whom they served in a former state of

existence, we are inclined to ask whether he is serious: Is he not rather using a mythological figure, here as

elsewhere, to draw a veil over things which are beyond the limits of mortal knowledge? Once more, in

speaking of beauty is he really thinking of some external form such as might have been expressed in the

works of Phidias or Praxiteles; and not rather of an imaginary beauty, of a sort which extinguishes rather than

stimulates vulgar love,a heavenly beauty like that which flashed from time to time before the eyes of

Dante or Bunyan? Surely the latter. But it would be idle to reconcile all the details of the passage: it is a

picture, not a system, and a picture which is for the greater part an allegory, and an allegory which allows the

meaning to come through. The image of the charioteer and his steeds is placed side by side with the absolute

forms of justice, temperance, and the like, which are abstract ideas only, and which are seen with the eye of

the soul in her heavenly journey. The first impression of such a passage, in which no attempt is made to

separate the substance from the form, is far truer than an elaborate philosophical analysis.

It is too often forgotten that the whole of the second discourse of Socrates is only an allegory, or figure of

speech. For this reason, it is unnecessary to enquire whether the love of which Plato speaks is the love of men

or of women. It is really a general idea which includes both, and in which the sensual element, though not

wholly eradicated, is reduced to order and measure. We must not attribute a meaning to every fanciful detail.

Nor is there any need to call up revolting associations, which as a matter of good taste should be banished,

and which were far enough away from the mind of Plato. These and similar passages should be interpreted by

the Laws. Nor is there anything in the Symposium, or in the Charmides, in reality inconsistent with the

sterner rule which Plato lays down in the Laws. At the same time it is not to be denied that love and

philosophy are described by Socrates in figures of speech which would not be used in Christian times; or that

nameless vices were prevalent at Athens and in other Greek cities; or that friendships between men were a

more sacred tie, and had a more important social and educational influence than among ourselves. (See note

In the Phaedrus, as well as in the Symposium, there are two kinds of love, a lower and a higher, the one

answering to the natural wants of the animal, the other rising above them and contemplating with religious

awe the forms of justice, temperance, holiness, yet finding them also 'too dazzling bright for mortal eye,' and

shrinking from them in amazement. The opposition between these two kinds of love may be compared to the

opposition between the flesh and the spirit in the Epistles of St. Paul. It would be unmeaning to suppose that

Plato, in describing the spiritual combat, in which the rational soul is finally victor and master of both the

Two other thoughts about love are suggested by this passage. First of all, love is represented here, as in the

Symposium, as one of the great powers of nature, which takes many forms and two principal ones, having a

predominant influence over the lives of men. And these two, though opposed, are not absolutely separated the

one from the other. Plato, with his great knowledge of human nature, was well aware how easily one is

transformed into the other, or how soon the noble but fleeting aspiration may return into the nature of the

animal, while the lower instinct which is latent always remains. The intermediate sentimentalism, which has

exercised so great an influence on the literature of modern Europe, had no place in the classical times of

Hellas; the higher love, of which Plato speaks, is the subject, not of poetry or fiction, but of philosophy.

Secondly, there seems to be indicated a natural yearning of the human mind that the great ideas of justice,

temperance, wisdom, should be expressed in some form of visible beauty, like the absolute purity and

goodness which Christian art has sought to realize in the person of the Madonna. But although human nature

has often attempted to represent outwardly what can be only 'spiritually discerned,' men feel that in pictures

and images, whether painted or carved, or described in words only, we have not the substance but the shadow

of the truth which is in heaven. There is no reason to suppose that in the fairest works of Greek art, Plato ever

conceived himself to behold an image, however faint, of ideal truths. 'Not in that way was wisdom seen.'

We may now pass on to the second part of the Dialogue, which is a criticism on the first. Rhetoric is assailed

on various grounds: first, as desiring to persuade, without a knowledge of the truth; and secondly, as ignoring

the distinction between certain and probable matter. The three speeches are then passed in review: the first of

them has no definition of the nature of love, and no order in the topics (being in these respects far inferior to

the second); while the third of them is found (though a fancy of the hour) to be framed upon real dialectical

principles. But dialectic is not rhetoric; nothing on that subject is to be found in the endless treatises of

rhetoric, however prolific in hard names. When Plato has sufficiently put them to the test of ridicule he

touches, as with the point of a needle, the real error, which is the confusion of preliminary knowledge with

creative power. No attainments will provide the speaker with genius; and the sort of attainments which can

alone be of any value are the higher philosophy and the power of psychological analysis, which is given by

In this latter portion of the Dialogue there are many texts which may help us to speak and to think. The names

dialectic and rhetoric are passing out of use; we hardly examine seriously into their nature and limits, and

probably the arts both of speaking and of conversation have been unduly neglected by us. But the mind of

Socrates pierces through the differences of times and countries into the essential nature of man; and his words

apply equally to the modern world and to the Athenians of old. Would he not have asked of us, or rather is he

not asking of us, Whether we have ceased to prefer appearances to reality? Let us take a survey of the

professions to which he refers and try them by his standard. Is not all literature passing into criticism, just as

Athenian literature in the age of Plato was degenerating into sophistry and rhetoric? We can discourse and

write about poems and paintings, but we seem to have lost the gift of creating them. Can we wonder that few

of them 'come sweetly from nature,' while ten thousand reviewers (mala murioi) are engaged in dissecting

them? Young men, like Phaedrus, are enamoured of their own literary clique and have but a feeble sympathy

with the masterminds of former ages. They recognize 'a POETICAL necessity in the writings of their

favourite author, even when he boldly wrote off just what came in his head.' They are beginning to think that

Art is enough, just at the time when Art is about to disappear from the world. And would not a great painter,

such as Michael Angelo, or a great poet, such as Shakespeare, returning to earth, 'courteously rebuke'

uswould he not say that we are putting 'in the place of Art the preliminaries of Art,' confusing Art the

expression of mind and truth with Art the composition of colours and forms; and perhaps he might more

severely chastise some of us for trying to invent 'a new shudder' instead of bringing to the birth living and

healthy creations? These he would regard as the signs of an age wanting in original power.

Turning from literature and the arts to law and politics, again we fall under the lash of Socrates. For do we

not often make 'the worse appear the better cause;' and do not 'both parties sometimes agree to tell lies'? Is not

pleading 'an art of speaking unconnected with the truth'? There is another text of Socrates which must not be

forgotten in relation to this subject. In the endless maze of English law is there any 'dividing the whole into

parts or reuniting the parts into a whole'any semblance of an organized being 'having hands and feet and

other members'? Instead of a system there is the Chaos of Anaxagoras (omou panta chremata) and no Mind or

Order. Then again in the noble art of politics, who thinks of first principles and of true ideas? We avowedly

follow not the truth but the will of the many (compare Republic). Is not legislation too a sort of literary effort,

and might not statesmanship be described as the 'art of enchanting' the house? While there are some

politicians who have no knowledge of the truth, but only of what is likely to be approved by 'the many who

sit in judgment,' there are others who can give no form to their ideal, neither having learned 'the art of

persuasion,' nor having any insight into the 'characters of men.' Once more, has not medical science become a

professional routine, which many 'practise without being able to say who were their instructors'the

application of a few drugs taken from a book instead of a lifelong study of the natures and constitutions of

human beings? Do we see as clearly as Hippocrates 'that the nature of the body can only be understood as a

whole'? (Compare Charm.) And are not they held to be the wisest physicians who have the greatest distrust of

their art? What would Socrates think of our newspapers, of our theology? Perhaps he would be afraid to

speak of them;the one vox populi, the other vox Dei, he might hesitate to attack them; or he might trace a

fanciful connexion between them, and ask doubtfully, whether they are not equally inspired? He would

remark that we are always searching for a belief and deploring our unbelief, seeming to prefer popular

opinions unverified and contradictory to unpopular truths which are assured to us by the most certain proofs:

that our preachers are in the habit of praising God 'without regard to truth and falsehood, attributing to Him

every species of greatness and glory, saying that He is all this and the cause of all that, in order that we may

exhibit Him as the fairest and best of all' (Symp.) without any consideration of His real nature and character

or of the laws by which He governs the worldseeking for a 'private judgment' and not for the truth or

'God's judgment.' What would he say of the Church, which we praise in like manner, 'meaning ourselves,'

without regard to history or experience? Might he not ask, whether we 'care more for the truth of religion, or

for the speaker and the country from which the truth comes'? or, whether the 'select wise' are not 'the many'

after all? (Symp.) So we may fill up the sketch of Socrates, lest, as Phaedrus says, the argument should be too

He next proceeds with enthusiasm to define the royal art of dialectic as the power of dividing a whole into

parts, and of uniting the parts in a whole, and which may also be regarded (compare Soph.) as the process of

the mind talking with herself. The latter view has probably led Plato to the paradox that speech is superior to

writing, in which he may seem also to be doing an injustice to himself. For the two cannot be fairly compared

in the manner which Plato suggests. The contrast of the living and dead word, and the example of Socrates,

which he has represented in the form of the Dialogue, seem to have misled him. For speech and writing have

really different functions; the one is more transitory, more diffuse, more elastic and capable of adaptation to

moods and times; the other is more permanent, more concentrated, and is uttered not to this or that person or

audience, but to all the world. In the Politicus the paradox is carried further; the mind or will of the king is

preferred to the written law; he is supposed to be the Law personified, the ideal made Life.

Yet in both these statements there is also contained a truth; they may be compared with one another, and also

with the other famous paradox, that 'knowledge cannot be taught.' Socrates means to say, that what is truly

written is written in the soul, just as what is truly taught grows up in the soul from within and is not forced

upon it from without. When planted in a congenial soil the little seed becomes a tree, and 'the birds of the air

build their nests in the branches.' There is an echo of this in the prayer at the end of the Dialogue, 'Give me

beauty in the inward soul, and may the inward and outward man be at one.' We may further compare the

words of St. Paul, 'Written not on tables of stone, but on fleshly tables of the heart;' and again, 'Ye are my

epistles known and read of all men.' There may be a use in writing as a preservative against the forgetfulness

of old age, but to live is higher far, to be ourselves the book, or the epistle, the truth embodied in a person, the

Word made flesh. Something like this we may believe to have passed before Plato's mind when he affirmed

that speech was superior to writing. So in other ages, weary of literature and criticism, of making many

books, of writing articles in reviews, some have desired to live more closely in communion with their

fellowmen, to speak heart to heart, to speak and act only, and not to write, following the example of

Some other touches of inimitable grace and art and of the deepest wisdom may be also noted; such as the

prayer or 'collect' which has just been cited, 'Give me beauty,' etc.; or 'the great name which belongs to God

alone;' or 'the saying of wiser men than ourselves that a man of sense should try to please not his

fellowservants, but his good and noble masters,' like St. Paul again; or the description of the 'heavenly

The chief criteria for determining the date of the Dialogue are (1) the ages of Lysias and Isocrates; (2) the

Lysias was born in the year 458; Isocrates in the year 436, about seven years before the birth of Plato. The

first of the two great rhetoricians is described as in the zenith of his fame; the second is still young and full of

promise. Now it is argued that this must have been written in the youth of Isocrates, when the promise was

not yet fulfilled. And thus we should have to assign the Dialogue to a year not later than 406, when Isocrates

was thirty and Plato twentythree years of age, and while Socrates himself was still alive.

Those who argue in this way seem not to reflect how easily Plato can 'invent Egyptians or anything else,' and

how careless he is of historical truth or probability. Who would suspect that the wise Critias, the virtuous

Charmides, had ended their lives among the thirty tyrants? Who would imagine that Lysias, who is here

assailed by Socrates, is the son of his old friend Cephalus? Or that Isocrates himself is the enemy of Plato and

his school? No arguments can be drawn from the appropriateness or inappropriateness of the characters of

Plato. (Else, perhaps, it might be further argued that, judging from their extant remains, insipid rhetoric is far

more characteristic of Isocrates than of Lysias.) But Plato makes use of names which have often hardly any

connection with the historical characters to whom they belong. In this instance the comparative favour shown

to Isocrates may possibly be accounted for by the circumstance of his belonging to the aristocratical, as

Few persons will be inclined to suppose, in the superficial manner of some ancient critics, that a dialogue

which treats of love must necessarily have been written in youth. As little weight can be attached to the

argument that Plato must have visited Egypt before he wrote the story of Theuth and Thamus. For there is no

real proof that he ever went to Egypt; and even if he did, he might have known or invented Egyptian

traditions before he went there. The late date of the Phaedrus will have to be established by other arguments

than these: the maturity of the thought, the perfection of the style, the insight, the relation to the other

Platonic Dialogues, seem to contradict the notion that it could have been the work of a youth of twenty or

twentythree years of age. The cosmological notion of the mind as the primum mobile, and the admission of

impulse into the immortal nature, also afford grounds for assigning a later date. (Compare Tim., Soph.,

Laws.) Add to this that the picture of Socrates, though in some lesser particulars,e.g. his going without

sandals, his habit of remaining within the walls, his emphatic declaration that his study is human nature,an

exact resemblance, is in the main the Platonic and not the real Socrates. Can we suppose 'the young man to

have told such lies' about his master while he was still alive? Moreover, when two Dialogues are so closely

connected as the Phaedrus and Symposium, there is great improbability in supposing that one of them was

written at least twenty years after the other. The conclusion seems to be, that the Dialogue was written at

some comparatively late but unknown period of Plato's life, after he had deserted the purely Socratic point of

view, but before he had entered on the more abstract speculations of the Sophist or the Philebus. Taking into

account the divisions of the soul, the doctrine of transmigration, the contemplative nature of the philosophic

life, and the character of the style, we shall not be far wrong in placing the Phaedrus in the neighbourhood of

the Republic; remarking only that allowance must be made for the poetical element in the Phaedrus, which,

while falling short of the Republic in definite philosophic results, seems to have glimpses of a truth beyond.

Two short passages, which are unconnected with the main subject of the Dialogue, may seem to merit a more

particular notice: (1) the locus classicus about mythology; (2) the tale of the grasshoppers.

The first passage is remarkable as showing that Plato was entirely free from what may be termed the

Euhemerism of his age. For there were Euhemerists in Hellas long before Euhemerus. Early philosophers,

like Anaxagoras and Metrodorus, had found in Homer and mythology hidden meanings. Plato, with a truer

instinct, rejects these attractive interpretations; he regards the inventor of them as 'unfortunate;' and they draw

a man off from the knowledge of himself. There is a latent criticism, and also a poetical sense in Plato, which

enable him to discard them, and yet in another way to make use of poetry and mythology as a vehicle of

thought and feeling. What would he have said of the discovery of Christian doctrines in these old Greek

legends? While acknowledging that such interpretations are 'very nice,' would he not have remarked that they

are found in all sacred literatures? They cannot be tested by any criterion of truth, or used to establish any

truth; they add nothing to the sum of human knowledge; they arewhat we please, and if employed as

'peacemakers' between the new and old are liable to serious misconstruction, as he elsewhere remarks

(Republic). And therefore he would have 'bid Farewell to them; the study of them would take up too much of

his time; and he has not as yet learned the true nature of religion.' The 'sophistical' interest of Phaedrus, the

little touch about the two versions of the story, the ironical manner in which these explanations are set

aside'the common opinion about them is enough for me'the allusion to the serpent Typho may be noted

in passing; also the general agreement between the tone of this speech and the remark of Socrates which

The tale of the grasshoppers is naturally suggested by the surrounding scene. They are also the

representatives of the Athenians as children of the soil. Under the image of the lively chirruping grasshoppers

who inform the Muses in heaven about those who honour them on earth, Plato intends to represent an

Athenian audience (tettigessin eoikotes). The story is introduced, apparently, to mark a change of subject, and

also, like several other allusions which occur in the course of the Dialogue, in order to preserve the scene in

No one can duly appreciate the dialogues of Plato, especially the Phaedrus, Symposium, and portions of the

Republic, who has not a sympathy with mysticism. To the uninitiated, as he would himself have

acknowledged, they will appear to be the dreams of a poet who is disguised as a philosopher. There is a

twofold difficulty in apprehending this aspect of the Platonic writings. First, we do not immediately realize

that under the marble exterior of Greek literature was concealed a soul thrilling with spiritual emotion.

Secondly, the forms or figures which the Platonic philosophy assumes, are not like the images of the prophet

Isaiah, or of the Apocalypse, familiar to us in the days of our youth. By mysticism we mean, not the

extravagance of an erring fancy, but the concentration of reason in feeling, the enthusiastic love of the good,

the true, the one, the sense of the infinity of knowledge and of the marvel of the human faculties. When

feeding upon such thoughts the 'wing of the soul' is renewed and gains strength; she is raised above 'the

manikins of earth' and their opinions, waiting in wonder to know, and working with reverence to find out

One of the main purposes of Plato in the Phaedrus is to satirize Rhetoric, or rather the Professors of Rhetoric

who swarmed at Athens in the fourth century before Christ. As in the opening of the Dialogue he ridicules the

interpreters of mythology; as in the Protagoras he mocks at the Sophists; as in the Euthydemus he makes fun

of the wordsplitting Eristics; as in the Cratylus he ridicules the fancies of Etymologers; as in the Meno and

Gorgias and some other dialogues he makes reflections and casts sly imputation upon the higher classes at

Athens; so in the Phaedrus, chiefly in the latter part, he aims his shafts at the rhetoricians. The profession of

rhetoric was the greatest and most popular in Athens, necessary 'to a man's salvation,' or at any rate to his

attainment of wealth or power; but Plato finds nothing wholesome or genuine in the purpose of it. It is a

veritable 'sham,' having no relation to fact, or to truth of any kind. It is antipathetic to him not only as a

philosopher, but also as a great writer. He cannot abide the tricks of the rhetoricians, or the pedantries and

mannerisms which they introduce into speech and writing. He sees clearly how far removed they are from the

ways of simplicity and truth, and how ignorant of the very elements of the art which they are professing to

teach. The thing which is most necessary of all, the knowledge of human nature, is hardly if at all considered

by them. The true rules of composition, which are very few, are not to be found in their voluminous systems.

Their pretentiousness, their omniscience, their large fortunes, their impatience of argument, their indifference

to first principles, their stupidity, their progresses through Hellas accompanied by a troop of their

disciplesthese things were very distasteful to Plato, who esteemed genius far above art, and was quite

sensible of the interval which separated them (Phaedrus). It is the interval which separates Sophists and

rhetoricians from ancient famous men and women such as Homer and Hesiod, Anacreon and Sappho,

Aeschylus and Sophocles; and the Platonic Socrates is afraid that, if he approves the former, he will be

disowned by the latter. The spirit of rhetoric was soon to overspread all Hellas; and Plato with prophetic

insight may have seen, from afar, the great literary waste or dead level, or interminable marsh, in which

Greek literature was soon to disappear. A similar vision of the decline of the Greek drama and of the contrast

of the old literature and the new was present to the mind of Aristophanes after the death of the three great

tragedians (Frogs). After about a hundred, or at most two hundred years if we exclude Homer, the genius of

Hellas had ceased to flower or blossom. The dreary waste which follows, beginning with the Alexandrian

writers and even before them in the platitudes of Isocrates and his school, spreads over much more than a

thousand years. And from this decline the Greek language and literature, unlike the Latin, which has come to

life in new forms and been developed into the great European languages, never recovered.

This monotony of literature, without merit, without genius and without character, is a phenomenon which

deserves more attention than it has hitherto received; it is a phenomenon unique in the literary history of the

world. How could there have been so much cultivation, so much diligence in writing, and so little mind or

real creative power? Why did a thousand years invent nothing better than Sibylline books, Orphic poems,

Byzantine imitations of classical histories, Christian reproductions of Greek plays, novels like the silly and

obscene romances of Longus and Heliodorus, innumerable forged epistles, a great many epigrams,

biographies of the meanest and most meagre description, a sham philosophy which was the bastard progeny

of the union between Hellas and the East? Only in Plutarch, in Lucian, in Longinus, in the Roman emperors

Marcus Aurelius and Julian, in some of the Christian fathers are there any traces of good sense or originality,

or any power of arousing the interest of later ages. And when new books ceased to be written, why did hosts

of grammarians and interpreters flock in, who never attain to any sound notion either of grammar or

interpretation? Why did the physical sciences never arrive at any true knowledge or make any real progress?

Why did poetry droop and languish? Why did history degenerate into fable? Why did words lose their power

of expression? Why were ages of external greatness and magnificence attended by all the signs of decay in

To these questions many answers may be given, which if not the true causes, are at least to be reckoned

among the symptoms of the decline. There is the want of method in physical science, the want of criticism in

history, the want of simplicity or delicacy in poetry, the want of political freedom, which is the true

atmosphere of public speaking, in oratory. The ways of life were luxurious and commonplace. Philosophy

had become extravagant, eclectic, abstract, devoid of any real content. At length it ceased to exist. It had

spread words like plaster over the whole field of knowledge. It had grown ascetic on one side, mystical on the

other. Neither of these tendencies was favourable to literature. There was no sense of beauty either in

language or in art. The Greek world became vacant, barbaric, oriental. No one had anything new to say, or

any conviction of truth. The age had no remembrance of the past, no power of understanding what other ages

thought and felt. The Catholic faith had degenerated into dogma and controversy. For more than a thousand

years not a single writer of firstrate, or even of secondrate, reputation has a place in the innumerable rolls

If we seek to go deeper, we can still only describe the outward nature of the clouds or darkness which were

spread over the heavens during so many ages without relief or light. We may say that this, like several other

long periods in the history of the human race, was destitute, or deprived of the moral qualities which are the

root of literary excellence. It had no life or aspiration, no national or political force, no desire for consistency,

no love of knowledge for its own sake. It did not attempt to pierce the mists which surrounded it. It did not

propose to itself to go forward and scale the heights of knowledge, but to go backwards and seek at the

beginning what can only be found towards the end. It was lost in doubt and ignorance. It rested upon tradition

and authority. It had none of the higher play of fancy which creates poetry; and where there is no true poetry,

neither can there be any good prose. It had no great characters, and therefore it had no great writers. It was

incapable of distinguishing between words and things. It was so hopelessly below the ancient standard of

classical Greek art and literature that it had no power of understanding or of valuing them. It is doubtful

whether any Greek author was justly appreciated in antiquity except by his own contemporaries; and this

neglect of the great authors of the past led to the disappearance of the larger part of them, while the Greek

fathers were mostly preserved. There is no reason to suppose that, in the century before the taking of

Constantinople, much more was in existence than the scholars of the Renaissance carried away with them to

The character of Greek literature sank lower as time went on. It consisted more and more of compilations, of

scholia, of extracts, of commentaries, forgeries, imitations. The commentator or interpreter had no conception

of his author as a whole, and very little of the context of any passage which he was explaining. The least

things were preferred by him to the greatest. The question of a reading, or a grammatical form, or an accent,

or the uses of a word, took the place of the aim or subject of the book. He had no sense of the beauties of an

author, and very little light is thrown by him on real difficulties. He interprets past ages by his own. The

greatest classical writers are the least appreciated by him. This seems to be the reason why so many of them

have perished, why the lyric poets have almost wholly disappeared; why, out of the eighty or ninety tragedies

Such an age of sciolism and scholasticism may possibly once more get the better of the literary world. There

are those who prophesy that the signs of such a day are again appearing among us, and that at the end of the

present century no writer of the first class will be still alive. They think that the Muse of Literature may

transfer herself to other countries less dried up or worn out than our own. They seem to see the withering

effect of criticism on original genius. No one can doubt that such a decay or decline of literature and of art

seriously affects the manners and character of a nation. It takes away half the joys and refinements of life; it

increases its dulness and grossness. Hence it becomes a matter of great interest to consider how, if at all, such

a degeneracy may be averted. Is there any elixir which can restore life and youth to the literature of a nation,

First there is the progress of education. It is possible, and even probable, that the extension of the means of

knowledge over a wider area and to persons living under new conditions may lead to many new combinations

of thought and language. But, as yet, experience does not favour the realization of such a hope or promise. It

may be truly answered that at present the training of teachers and the methods of education are very

imperfect, and therefore that we cannot judge of the future by the present. When more of our youth are

trained in the best literatures, and in the best parts of them, their minds may be expected to have a larger

growth. They will have more interests, more thoughts, more material for conversation; they will have a higher

standard and begin to think for themselves. The number of persons who will have the opportunity of

receiving the highest education through the cheap press, and by the help of high schools and colleges, may

increase tenfold. It is likely that in every thousand persons there is at least one who is far above the average in

natural capacity, but the seed which is in him dies for want of cultivation. It has never had any stimulus to

grow, or any field in which to blossom and produce fruit. Here is a great reservoir or treasurehouse of

human intelligence out of which new waters may flow and cover the earth. If at any time the great men of the

world should die out, and originality or genius appear to suffer a partial eclipse, there is a boundless hope in

the multitude of intelligences for future generations. They may bring gifts to men such as the world has never

received before. They may begin at a higher point and yet take with them all the results of the past. The

cooperation of many may have effects not less striking, though different in character from those which the

creative genius of a single man, such as Bacon or Newton, formerly produced. There is also great hope to be

derived, not merely from the extension of education over a wider area, but from the continuance of it during

many generations. Educated parents will have children fit to receive education; and these again will grow up

under circumstances far more favourable to the growth of intelligence than any which have hitherto existed in

Even if we were to suppose no more men of genius to be produced, the great writers of ancient or of modern

times will remain to furnish abundant materials of education to the coming generation. Now that every nation

holds communication with every other, we may truly say in a fuller sense than formerly that 'the thoughts of

men are widened with the process of the suns.' They will not be 'cribbed, cabined, and confined' within a

province or an island. The East will provide elements of culture to the West as well as the West to the East.

The religions and literatures of the world will be open books, which he who wills may read. The human race

may not be always ground down by bodily toil, but may have greater leisure for the improvement of the

mind. The increasing sense of the greatness and infinity of nature will tend to awaken in men larger and more

liberal thoughts. The love of mankind may be the source of a greater development of literature than

nationality has ever been. There may be a greater freedom from prejudice and party; we may better

understand the whereabouts of truth, and therefore there may be more success and fewer failures in the search

for it. Lastly, in the coming ages we shall carry with us the recollection of the past, in which are necessarily

contained many seeds of revival and renaissance in the future. So far is the world from becoming exhausted,

PHAEDRUS: I come from Lysias the son of Cephalus, and I am going to take a walk outside the wall, for I

have been sitting with him the whole morning; and our common friend Acumenus tells me that it is much

PHAEDRUS: Yes, he was staying with Epicrates, here at the house of Morychus; that house which is near

SOCRATES: And how did he entertain you? Can I be wrong in supposing that Lysias gave you a feast of

SOCRATES: And should I not deem the conversation of you and Lysias 'a thing of higher import,' as I may

PHAEDRUS: My tale, Socrates, is one of your sort, for love was the theme which occupied uslove after a

fashion: Lysias has been writing about a fair youth who was being tempted, but not by a lover; and this was

the point: he ingeniously proved that the nonlover should be accepted rather than the lover.

SOCRATES: O that is noble of him! I wish that he would say the poor man rather than the rich, and the old

man rather than the young one;then he would meet the case of me and of many a man; his words would be

quite refreshing, and he would be a public benefactor. For my part, I do so long to hear his speech, that if you

walk all the way to Megara, and when you have reached the wall come back, as Herodicus recommends,

PHAEDRUS: What do you mean, my good Socrates? How can you imagine that my unpractised memory

can do justice to an elaborate work, which the greatest rhetorician of the age spent a long time in composing.

SOCRATES: I believe that I know Phaedrus about as well as I know myself, and I am very sure that the

speech of Lysias was repeated to him, not once only, but again and again;he insisted on hearing it many

times over and Lysias was very willing to gratify him; at last, when nothing else would do, he got hold of the

book, and looked at what he most wanted to see, this occupied him during the whole morning;and then

when he was tired with sitting, he went out to take a walk, not until, by the dog, as I believe, he had simply

learned by heart the entire discourse, unless it was unusually long, and he went to a place outside the wall that

he might practise his lesson. There he saw a certain lover of discourse who had a similar weakness;he saw

and rejoiced; now thought he, 'I shall have a partner in my revels.' And he invited him to come and walk with

him. But when the lover of discourse begged that he would repeat the tale, he gave himself airs and said, 'No

I cannot,' as if he were indisposed; although, if the hearer had refused, he would sooner or later have been

compelled by him to listen whether he would or no. Therefore, Phaedrus, bid him do at once what he will

PHAEDRUS: I see that you will not let me off until I speak in some fashion or other; verily therefore my

PHAEDRUS: I will do as I say; but believe me, Socrates, I did not learn the very wordsO no; nevertheless

I have a general notion of what he said, and will give you a summary of the points in which the lover differed

SOCRATES: Yes, my sweet one; but you must first of all show what you have in your left hand under your

cloak, for that roll, as I suspect, is the actual discourse. Now, much as I love you, I would not have you

suppose that I am going to have your memory exercised at my expense, if you have Lysias himself here.

PHAEDRUS: Enough; I see that I have no hope of practising my art upon you. But if I am to read, where

SOCRATES: Let us turn aside and go by the Ilissus; we will sit down at some quiet spot.

PHAEDRUS: I am fortunate in not having my sandals, and as you never have any, I think that we may go

along the brook and cool our feet in the water; this will be the easiest way, and at midday and in the summer

PHAEDRUS: There are shade and gentle breezes, and grass on which we may either sit or lie down.

PHAEDRUS: I should like to know, Socrates, whether the place is not somewhere here at which Boreas is

PHAEDRUS: And is this the exact spot? The little stream is delightfully clear and bright; I can fancy that

SOCRATES: I believe that the spot is not exactly here, but about a quarter of a mile lower down, where you

cross to the temple of Artemis, and there is, I think, some sort of an altar of Boreas at the place.

PHAEDRUS: I have never noticed it; but I beseech you to tell me, Socrates, do you believe this tale?

SOCRATES: The wise are doubtful, and I should not be singular if, like them, I too doubted. I might have a

rational explanation that Orithyia was playing with Pharmacia, when a northern gust carried her over the

neighbouring rocks; and this being the manner of her death, she was said to have been carried away by

Boreas. There is a discrepancy, however, about the locality; according to another version of the story she was

taken from Areopagus, and not from this place. Now I quite acknowledge that these allegories are very nice,

but he is not to be envied who has to invent them; much labour and ingenuity will be required of him; and

when he has once begun, he must go on and rehabilitate Hippocentaurs and chimeras dire. Gorgons and

winged steeds flow in apace, and numberless other inconceivable and portentous natures. And if he is

sceptical about them, and would fain reduce them one after another to the rules of probability, this sort of

crude philosophy will take up a great deal of time. Now I have no leisure for such enquiries; shall I tell you

why? I must first know myself, as the Delphian inscription says; to be curious about that which is not my

concern, while I am still in ignorance of my own self, would be ridiculous. And therefore I bid farewell to all

this; the common opinion is enough for me. For, as I was saying, I want to know not about this, but about

myself: am I a monster more complicated and swollen with passion than the serpent Typho, or a creature of a

gentler and simpler sort, to whom Nature has given a diviner and lowlier destiny? But let me ask you, friend:

SOCRATES: By Here, a fair restingplace, full of summer sounds and scents. Here is this lofty and

spreading planetree, and the agnus castus high and clustering, in the fullest blossom and the greatest

fragrance; and the stream which flows beneath the planetree is deliciously cold to the feet. Judging from the

ornaments and images, this must be a spot sacred to Achelous and the Nymphs. How delightful is the

breeze:so very sweet; and there is a sound in the air shrill and summerlike which makes answer to the

chorus of the cicadae. But the greatest charm of all is the grass, like a pillow gently sloping to the head. My

PHAEDRUS: What an incomprehensible being you are, Socrates: when you are in the country, as you say,

you really are like some stranger who is led about by a guide. Do you ever cross the border? I rather think

SOCRATES: Very true, my good friend; and I hope that you will excuse me when you hear the reason,

which is, that I am a lover of knowledge, and the men who dwell in the city are my teachers, and not the trees

or the country. Though I do indeed believe that you have found a spell with which to draw me out of the city

into the country, like a hungry cow before whom a bough or a bunch of fruit is waved. For only hold up

before me in like manner a book, and you may lead me all round Attica, and over the wide world. And now

having arrived, I intend to lie down, and do you choose any posture in which you can read best. Begin.

PHAEDRUS: Listen. You know how matters stand with me; and how, as I conceive, this affair may be

arranged for the advantage of both of us. And I maintain that I ought not to fail in my suit, because I am not

your lover: for lovers repent of the kindnesses which they have shown when their passion ceases, but to the

nonlovers who are free and not under any compulsion, no time of repentance ever comes; for they confer

their benefits according to the measure of their ability, in the way which is most conducive to their own

interest. Then again, lovers consider how by reason of their love they have neglected their own concerns and

rendered service to others: and when to these benefits conferred they add on the troubles which they have

endured, they think that they have long ago made to the beloved a very ample return. But the nonlover has

no such tormenting recollections; he has never neglected his affairs or quarrelled with his relations; he has no

troubles to add up or excuses to invent; and being well rid of all these evils, why should he not freely do what

will gratify the beloved? If you say that the lover is more to be esteemed, because his love is thought to be

greater; for he is willing to say and do what is hateful to other men, in order to please his beloved;that, if

true, is only a proof that he will prefer any future love to his present, and will injure his old love at the

pleasure of the new. And how, in a matter of such infinite importance, can a man be right in trusting himself

to one who is afflicted with a malady which no experienced person would attempt to cure, for the patient

himself admits that he is not in his right mind, and acknowledges that he is wrong in his mind, but says that

he is unable to control himself? And if he came to his right mind, would he ever imagine that the desires were

good which he conceived when in his wrong mind? Once more, there are many more nonlovers than lovers;

and if you choose the best of the lovers, you will not have many to choose from; but if from the nonlovers,

the choice will be larger, and you will be far more likely to find among them a person who is worthy of your

friendship. If public opinion be your dread, and you would avoid reproach, in all probability the lover, who is

always thinking that other men are as emulous of him as he is of them, will boast to some one of his

successes, and make a show of them openly in the pride of his heart;he wants others to know that his

labour has not been lost; but the nonlover is more his own master, and is desirous of solid good, and not of

the opinion of mankind. Again, the lover may be generally noted or seen following the beloved (this is his

regular occupation), and whenever they are observed to exchange two words they are supposed to meet about

some affair of love either past or in contemplation; but when nonlovers meet, no one asks the reason why,

because people know that talking to another is natural, whether friendship or mere pleasure be the motive.

Once more, if you fear the fickleness of friendship, consider that in any other case a quarrel might be a

mutual calamity; but now, when you have given up what is most precious to you, you will be the greater

loser, and therefore, you will have more reason in being afraid of the lover, for his vexations are many, and

he is always fancying that every one is leagued against him. Wherefore also he debars his beloved from

society; he will not have you intimate with the wealthy, lest they should exceed him in wealth, or with men of

education, lest they should be his superiors in understanding; and he is equally afraid of anybody's influence

who has any other advantage over himself. If he can persuade you to break with them, you are left without a

friend in the world; or if, out of a regard to your own interest, you have more sense than to comply with his

desire, you will have to quarrel with him. But those who are nonlovers, and whose success in love is the

reward of their merit, will not be jealous of the companions of their beloved, and will rather hate those who

refuse to be his associates, thinking that their favourite is slighted by the latter and benefited by the former;

for more love than hatred may be expected to come to him out of his friendship with others. Many lovers too

have loved the person of a youth before they knew his character or his belongings; so that when their passion

has passed away, there is no knowing whether they will continue to be his friends; whereas, in the case of

nonlovers who were always friends, the friendship is not lessened by the favours granted; but the

recollection of these remains with them, and is an earnest of good things to come.

Further, I say that you are likely to be improved by me, whereas the lover will spoil you. For they praise your

words and actions in a wrong way; partly, because they are afraid of offending you, and also, their judgment

is weakened by passion. Such are the feats which love exhibits; he makes things painful to the disappointed

which give no pain to others; he compels the successful lover to praise what ought not to give him pleasure,

and therefore the beloved is to be pitied rather than envied. But if you listen to me, in the first place, I, in my

intercourse with you, shall not merely regard present enjoyment, but also future advantage, being not

mastered by love, but my own master; nor for small causes taking violent dislikes, but even when the cause is

great, slowly laying up little wrath unintentional offences I shall forgive, and intentional ones I shall try to

Do you think that a lover only can be a firm friend? reflect:if this were true, we should set small value on

sons, or fathers, or mothers; nor should we ever have loyal friends, for our love of them arises not from

passion, but from other associations. Further, if we ought to shower favours on those who are the most eager

suitors,on that principle, we ought always to do good, not to the most virtuous, but to the most needy; for

they are the persons who will be most relieved, and will therefore be the most grateful; and when you make a

feast you should invite not your friend, but the beggar and the empty soul; for they will love you, and attend

you, and come about your doors, and will be the best pleased, and the most grateful, and will invoke many a

blessing on your head. Yet surely you ought not to be granting favours to those who besiege you with prayer,

but to those who are best able to reward you; nor to the lover only, but to those who are worthy of love; nor to

those who will enjoy the bloom of your youth, but to those who will share their possessions with you in age;

nor to those who, having succeeded, will glory in their success to others, but to those who will be modest and

tell no tales; nor to those who care about you for a moment only, but to those who will continue your friends

through life; nor to those who, when their passion is over, will pick a quarrel with you, but rather to those

who, when the charm of youth has left you, will show their own virtue. Remember what I have said; and

consider yet this further point: friends admonish the lover under the idea that his way of life is bad, but no

one of his kindred ever yet censured the nonlover, or thought that he was illadvised about his own

'Perhaps you will ask me whether I propose that you should indulge every nonlover. To which I reply that

not even the lover would advise you to indulge all lovers, for the indiscriminate favour is less esteemed by

the rational recipient, and less easily hidden by him who would escape the censure of the world. Now love

'I believe that I have said enough; but if there is anything more which you desire or which in your opinion

Now, Socrates, what do you think? Is not the discourse excellent, more especially in the matter of the

SOCRATES: Yes, quite admirable; the effect on me was ravishing. And this I owe to you, Phaedrus, for I

observed you while reading to be in an ecstasy, and thinking that you are more experienced in these matters

than I am, I followed your example, and, like you, my divine darling, I became inspired with a phrenzy.

PHAEDRUS: Now don't talk in that way, Socrates, but let me have your real opinion; I adjure you, by Zeus,

the god of friendship, to tell me whether you think that any Hellene could have said more or spoken better on

SOCRATES: Well, but are you and I expected to praise the sentiments of the author, or only the clearness,

and roundness, and finish, and tournure of the language? As to the first I willingly submit to your better

judgment, for I am not worthy to form an opinion, having only attended to the rhetorical manner; and I was

doubting whether this could have been defended even by Lysias himself; I thought, though I speak under

correction, that he repeated himself two or three times, either from want of words or from want of pains; and

also, he appeared to me ostentatiously to exult in showing how well he could say the same thing in two or

PHAEDRUS: Nonsense, Socrates; what you call repetition was the especial merit of the speech; for he

omitted no topic of which the subject rightly allowed, and I do not think that any one could have spoken

SOCRATES: There I cannot go along with you. Ancient sages, men and women, who have spoken and

written of these things, would rise up in judgment against me, if out of complaisance I assented to you.

SOCRATES: I am sure that I must have heard; but at this moment I do not remember from whom; perhaps

from Sappho the fair, or Anacreon the wise; or, possibly, from a prose writer. Why do I say so? Why, because

I perceive that my bosom is full, and that I could make another speech as good as that of Lysias, and

different. Now I am certain that this is not an invention of my own, who am well aware that I know nothing,

and therefore I can only infer that I have been filled through the ears, like a pitcher, from the waters of

PHAEDRUS: That is grand:but never mind where you heard the discourse or from whom; let that be a

mystery not to be divulged even at my earnest desire. Only, as you say, promise to make another and better

oration, equal in length and entirely new, on the same subject; and I, like the nine Archons, will promise to

set up a golden image at Delphi, not only of myself, but of you, and as large as life.

SOCRATES: You are a dear golden ass if you suppose me to mean that Lysias has altogether missed the

mark, and that I can make a speech from which all his arguments are to be excluded. The worst of authors

will say something which is to the point. Who, for example, could speak on this thesis of yours without

praising the discretion of the nonlover and blaming the indiscretion of the lover? These are the

commonplaces of the subject which must come in (for what else is there to be said?) and must be allowed and

excused; the only merit is in the arrangement of them, for there can be none in the invention; but when you

PHAEDRUS: I admit that there is reason in what you say, and I too will be reasonable, and will allow you to

start with the premiss that the lover is more disordered in his wits than the nonlover; if in what remains you

make a longer and better speech than Lysias, and use other arguments, then I say again, that a statue you shall

have of beaten gold, and take your place by the colossal offerings of the Cypselids at Olympia.

SOCRATES: How profoundly in earnest is the lover, because to tease him I lay a finger upon his love! And

so, Phaedrus, you really imagine that I am going to improve upon the ingenuity of Lysias?

PHAEDRUS: There I have you as you had me, and you must just speak 'as you best can.' Do not let us

exchange 'tu quoque' as in a farce, or compel me to say to you as you said to me, 'I know Socrates as well as I

know myself, and he was wanting to speak, but he gave himself airs.' Rather I would have you consider that

from this place we stir not until you have unbosomed yourself of the speech; for here are we all alone, and I

am stronger, remember, and younger than you:Wherefore perpend, and do not compel me to use violence.

SOCRATES: But, my sweet Phaedrus, how ridiculous it would be of me to compete with Lysias in an

PHAEDRUS: You see how matters stand; and therefore let there be no more pretences; for, indeed, I know

PHAEDRUS: Yes, but I will; and my word shall be an oath. 'I say, or rather swear'but what god will be

witness of my oath?'By this plane tree I swear, that unless you repeat the discourse here in the face of this

very planetree, I will never tell you another; never let you have word of another!'

SOCRATES: Villain! I am conquered; the poor lover of discourse has no more to say.

SOCRATES: I am not going to play tricks now that you have taken the oath, for I cannot allow myself to be

SOCRATES: I will veil my face and gallop through the discourse as fast as I can, for if I see you I shall feel

SOCRATES: Come, O ye Muses, melodious, as ye are called, whether you have received this name from the

character of your strains, or because the Melians are a musical race, help, O help me in the tale which my

good friend here desires me to rehearse, in order that his friend whom he always deemed wise may seem to

Once upon a time there was a fair boy, or, more properly speaking, a youth; he was very fair and had a great

many lovers; and there was one special cunning one, who had persuaded the youth that he did not love him,

but he really loved him all the same; and one day when he was paying his addresses to him, he used this very

argumentthat he ought to accept the nonlover rather than the lover; his words were as follows:

'All good counsel begins in the same way; a man should know what he is advising about, or his counsel will

all come to nought. But people imagine that they know about the nature of things, when they don't know

about them, and, not having come to an understanding at first because they think that they know, they end, as

might be expected, in contradicting one another and themselves. Now you and I must not be guilty of this

fundamental error which we condemn in others; but as our question is whether the lover or nonlover is to be

preferred, let us first of all agree in defining the nature and power of love, and then, keeping our eyes upon

the definition and to this appealing, let us further enquire whether love brings advantage or disadvantage.

'Every one sees that love is a desire, and we know also that nonlovers desire the beautiful and good. Now in

what way is the lover to be distinguished from the nonlover? Let us note that in every one of us there are

two guiding and ruling principles which lead us whither they will; one is the natural desire of pleasure, the

other is an acquired opinion which aspires after the best; and these two are sometimes in harmony and then

again at war, and sometimes the one, sometimes the other conquers. When opinion by the help of reason

leads us to the best, the conquering principle is called temperance; but when desire, which is devoid of

reason, rules in us and drags us to pleasure, that power of misrule is called excess. Now excess has many

names, and many members, and many forms, and any of these forms when very marked gives a name, neither

honourable nor creditable, to the bearer of the name. The desire of eating, for example, which gets the better

of the higher reason and the other desires, is called gluttony, and he who is possessed by it is called a glutton;

the tyrannical desire of drink, which inclines the possessor of the desire to drink, has a name which is only

too obvious, and there can be as little doubt by what name any other appetite of the same family would be

called;it will be the name of that which happens to be dominant. And now I think that you will perceive

the drift of my discourse; but as every spoken word is in a manner plainer than the unspoken, I had better say

further that the irrational desire which overcomes the tendency of opinion towards right, and is led away to

the enjoyment of beauty, and especially of personal beauty, by the desires which are her own kindredthat

supreme desire, I say, which by leading conquers and by the force of passion is reinforced, from this very

And now, dear Phaedrus, I shall pause for an instant to ask whether you do not think me, as I appear to

SOCRATES: Listen to me, then, in silence; for surely the place is holy; so that you must not wonder, if, as I

proceed, I appear to be in a divine fury, for already I am getting into dithyrambics.

SOCRATES: The responsibility rests with you. But hear what follows, and perhaps the fit may be averted;

Thus, my friend, we have declared and defined the nature of the subject. Keeping the definition in view, let us

now enquire what advantage or disadvantage is likely to ensue from the lover or the nonlover to him who

He who is the victim of his passions and the slave of pleasure will of course desire to make his beloved as

agreeable to himself as possible. Now to him who has a mind diseased anything is agreeable which is not

opposed to him, but that which is equal or superior is hateful to him, and therefore the lover will not brook

any superiority or equality on the part of his beloved; he is always employed in reducing him to inferiority.

And the ignorant is the inferior of the wise, the coward of the brave, the slow of speech of the speaker, the

dull of the clever. These, and not these only, are the mental defects of the beloved;defects which, when

implanted by nature, are necessarily a delight to the lover, and when not implanted, he must contrive to

implant them in him, if he would not be deprived of his fleeting joy. And therefore he cannot help being

jealous, and will debar his beloved from the advantages of society which would make a man of him, and

especially from that society which would have given him wisdom, and thereby he cannot fail to do him great

harm. That is to say, in his excessive fear lest he should come to be despised in his eyes he will be compelled

to banish from him divine philosophy; and there is no greater injury which he can inflict upon him than this.

He will contrive that his beloved shall be wholly ignorant, and in everything shall look to him; he is to be the

delight of the lover's heart, and a curse to himself. Verily, a lover is a profitable guardian and associate for

Let us next see how his master, whose law of life is pleasure and not good, will keep and train the body of his

servant. Will he not choose a beloved who is delicate rather than sturdy and strong? One brought up in shady

bowers and not in the bright sun, a stranger to manly exercises and the sweat of toil, accustomed only to a

soft and luxurious diet, instead of the hues of health having the colours of paint and ornament, and the rest of

a piece?such a life as any one can imagine and which I need not detail at length. But I may sum up all that

I have to say in a word, and pass on. Such a person in war, or in any of the great crises of life, will be the

anxiety of his friends and also of his lover, and certainly not the terror of his enemies; which nobody can

And now let us tell what advantage or disadvantage the beloved will receive from the guardianship and

society of his lover in the matter of his property; this is the next point to be considered. The lover will be the

first to see what, indeed, will be sufficiently evident to all men, that he desires above all things to deprive his

beloved of his dearest and best and holiest possessions, father, mother, kindred, friends, of all whom he

thinks may be hinderers or reprovers of their most sweet converse; he will even cast a jealous eye upon his

gold and silver or other property, because these make him a less easy prey, and when caught less manageable;

hence he is of necessity displeased at his possession of them and rejoices at their loss; and he would like him

to be wifeless, childless, homeless, as well; and the longer the better, for the longer he is all this, the longer he

There are some sort of animals, such as flatterers, who are dangerous and mischievous enough, and yet nature

has mingled a temporary pleasure and grace in their composition. You may say that a courtesan is hurtful,

and disapprove of such creatures and their practices, and yet for the time they are very pleasant. But the lover

is not only hurtful to his love; he is also an extremely disagreeable companion. The old proverb says that

'birds of a feather flock together'; I suppose that equality of years inclines them to the same pleasures, and

similarity begets friendship; yet you may have more than enough even of this; and verily constraint is always

said to be grievous. Now the lover is not only unlike his beloved, but he forces himself upon him. For he is

old and his love is young, and neither day nor night will he leave him if he can help; necessity and the sting

of desire drive him on, and allure him with the pleasure which he receives from seeing, hearing, touching,

perceiving him in every way. And therefore he is delighted to fasten upon him and to minister to him. But

what pleasure or consolation can the beloved be receiving all this time? Must he not feel the extremity of

disgust when he looks at an old shrivelled face and the remainder to match, which even in a description is

disagreeable, and quite detestable when he is forced into daily contact with his lover; moreover he is

jealously watched and guarded against everything and everybody, and has to hear misplaced and exaggerated

praises of himself, and censures equally inappropriate, which are intolerable when the man is sober, and,

besides being intolerable, are published all over the world in all their indelicacy and wearisomeness when he

And not only while his love continues is he mischievous and unpleasant, but when his love ceases he

becomes a perfidious enemy of him on whom he showered his oaths and prayers and promises, and yet could

hardly prevail upon him to tolerate the tedium of his company even from motives of interest. The hour of

payment arrives, and now he is the servant of another master; instead of love and infatuation, wisdom and

temperance are his bosom's lords; but the beloved has not discovered the change which has taken place in

him, when he asks for a return and recalls to his recollection former sayings and doings; he believes himself

to be speaking to the same person, and the other, not having the courage to confess the truth, and not knowing

how to fulfil the oaths and promises which he made when under the dominion of folly, and having now

grown wise and temperate, does not want to do as he did or to be as he was before. And so he runs away and

is constrained to be a defaulter; the oystershell (In allusion to a game in which two parties fled or pursued

according as an oystershell which was thrown into the air fell with the dark or light side uppermost.) has

fallen with the other side uppermosthe changes pursuit into flight, while the other is compelled to follow

him with passion and imprecation, not knowing that he ought never from the first to have accepted a

demented lover instead of a sensible nonlover; and that in making such a choice he was giving himself up to

a faithless, morose, envious, disagreeable being, hurtful to his estate, hurtful to his bodily health, and still

more hurtful to the cultivation of his mind, than which there neither is nor ever will be anything more

honoured in the eyes both of gods and men. Consider this, fair youth, and know that in the friendship of the

But I told you so, I am speaking in verse, and therefore I had better make an end; enough.

PHAEDRUS: I thought that you were only halfway and were going to make a similar speech about all the

SOCRATES: Does not your simplicity observe that I have got out of dithyrambics into heroics, when only

uttering a censure on the lover? And if I am to add the praises of the nonlover what will become of me? Do

you not perceive that I am already overtaken by the Nymphs to whom you have mischievously exposed me?

And therefore I will only add that the nonlover has all the advantages in which the lover is accused of being

deficient. And now I will say no more; there has been enough of both of them. Leaving the tale to its fate, I

will cross the river and make the best of my way home, lest a worse thing be inflicted upon me by you.

PHAEDRUS: Not yet, Socrates; not until the heat of the day has passed; do you not see that the hour is

almost noon? there is the midday sun standing still, as people say, in the meridian. Let us rather stay and talk

SOCRATES: Your love of discourse, Phaedrus, is superhuman, simply marvellous, and I do not believe that

there is any one of your contemporaries who has either made or in one way or another has compelled others

to make an equal number of speeches. I would except Simmias the Theban, but all the rest are far behind you.

SOCRATES: I mean to say that as I was about to cross the stream the usual sign was given to me,that

sign which always forbids, but never bids, me to do anything which I am going to do; and I thought that I

heard a voice saying in my ear that I had been guilty of impiety, and that I must not go away until I had made

an atonement. Now I am a diviner, though not a very good one, but I have enough religion for my own use, as

you might say of a bad writerhis writing is good enough for him; and I am beginning to see that I was in

error. O my friend, how prophetic is the human soul! At the time I had a sort of misgiving, and, like Ibycus, 'I

was troubled; I feared that I might be buying honour from men at the price of sinning against the gods.' Now I

SOCRATES: That was a dreadful speech which you brought with you, and you made me utter one as bad.

SOCRATES: It was foolish, I say,to a certain extent, impious; can anything be more dreadful?

SOCRATES: But that was not acknowledged by Lysias in his speech, nor by you in that other speech which

you by a charm drew from my lips. For if love be, as he surely is, a divinity, he cannot be evil. Yet this was

the error of both the speeches. There was also a simplicity about them which was refreshing; having no truth

or honesty in them, nevertheless they pretended to be something, hoping to succeed in deceiving the manikins

of earth and gain celebrity among them. Wherefore I must have a purgation. And I bethink me of an ancient

purgation of mythological error which was devised, not by Homer, for he never had the wit to discover why

he was blind, but by Stesichorus, who was a philosopher and knew the reason why; and therefore, when he

lost his eyes, for that was the penalty which was inflicted upon him for reviling the lovely Helen, he at once

'False is that word of minethe truth is that thou didst not embark in ships, nor ever go to the walls of Troy;'

and when he had completed his poem, which is called 'the recantation,' immediately his sight returned to him.

Now I will be wiser than either Stesichorus or Homer, in that I am going to make my recantation for reviling

love before I suffer; and this I will attempt, not as before, veiled and ashamed, but with forehead bold and

SOCRATES: Only think, my good Phaedrus, what an utter want of delicacy was shown in the two

discourses; I mean, in my own and in that which you recited out of the book. Would not any one who was

himself of a noble and gentle nature, and who loved or ever had loved a nature like his own, when we tell of

the petty causes of lovers' jealousies, and of their exceeding animosities, and of the injuries which they do to

their beloved, have imagined that our ideas of love were taken from some haunt of sailors to which good

manners were unknownhe would certainly never have admitted the justice of our censure?

SOCRATES: Therefore, because I blush at the thought of this person, and also because I am afraid of Love

himself, I desire to wash the brine out of my ears with water from the spring; and I would counsel Lysias not

to delay, but to write another discourse, which shall prove that 'ceteris paribus' the lover ought to be accepted

PHAEDRUS: Be assured that he shall. You shall speak the praises of the lover, and Lysias shall be

SOCRATES: But where is the fair youth whom I was addressing before, and who ought to listen now; lest,

if he hear me not, he should accept a non lover before he knows what he is doing?

SOCRATES: Know then, fair youth, that the former discourse was the word of Phaedrus, the son of Vain

Man, who dwells in the city of Myrrhina (Myrrhinusius). And this which I am about to utter is the recantation

of Stesichorus the son of Godly Man (Euphemus), who comes from the town of Desire (Himera), and is to the

following effect: 'I told a lie when I said' that the beloved ought to accept the nonlover when he might have

the lover, because the one is sane, and the other mad. It might be so if madness were simply an evil; but there

is also a madness which is a divine gift, and the source of the chiefest blessings granted to men. For prophecy

is a madness, and the prophetess at Delphi and the priestesses at Dodona when out of their senses have

conferred great benefits on Hellas, both in public and private life, but when in their senses few or none. And I

might also tell you how the Sibyl and other inspired persons have given to many an one many an intimation

of the future which has saved them from falling. But it would be tedious to speak of what every one knows.

There will be more reason in appealing to the ancient inventors of names (compare Cratylus), who would

never have connected prophecy (mantike) which foretells the future and is the noblest of arts, with madness

(manike), or called them both by the same name, if they had deemed madness to be a disgrace or

dishonour;they must have thought that there was an inspired madness which was a noble thing; for the two

words, mantike and manike, are really the same, and the letter tau is only a modern and tasteless insertion.

And this is confirmed by the name which was given by them to the rational investigation of futurity, whether

made by the help of birds or of other signsthis, for as much as it is an art which supplies from the

reasoning faculty mind (nous) and information (istoria) to human thought (oiesis) they originally termed

oionoistike, but the word has been lately altered and made sonorous by the modern introduction of the letter

Omega (oionoistike and oionistike), and in proportion as prophecy (mantike) is more perfect and august than

augury, both in name and fact, in the same proportion, as the ancients testify, is madness superior to a sane

mind (sophrosune) for the one is only of human, but the other of divine origin. Again, where plagues and

mightiest woes have bred in certain families, owing to some ancient bloodguiltiness, there madness has

entered with holy prayers and rites, and by inspired utterances found a way of deliverance for those who are

in need; and he who has part in this gift, and is truly possessed and duly out of his mind, is by the use of

purifications and mysteries made whole and exempt from evil, future as well as present, and has a release

from the calamity which was afflicting him. The third kind is the madness of those who are possessed by the

Muses; which taking hold of a delicate and virgin soul, and there inspiring frenzy, awakens lyrical and all

other numbers; with these adorning the myriad actions of ancient heroes for the instruction of posterity. But

he who, having no touch of the Muses' madness in his soul, comes to the door and thinks that he will get into

the temple by the help of arthe, I say, and his poetry are not admitted; the sane man disappears and is

I might tell of many other noble deeds which have sprung from inspired madness. And therefore, let no one

frighten or flutter us by saying that the temperate friend is to be chosen rather than the inspired, but let him

further show that love is not sent by the gods for any good to lover or beloved; if he can do so we will allow

him to carry off the palm. And we, on our part, will prove in answer to him that the madness of love is the

greatest of heaven's blessings, and the proof shall be one which the wise will receive, and the witling

disbelieve. But first of all, let us view the affections and actions of the soul divine and human, and try to

(Translated by Cic. Tus. Quaest.) The soul through all her being is immortal, for that which is ever in motion

is immortal; but that which moves another and is moved by another, in ceasing to move ceases also to live.

Only the selfmoving, never leaving self, never ceases to move, and is the fountain and beginning of motion

to all that moves besides. Now, the beginning is unbegotten, for that which is begotten has a beginning; but

the beginning is begotten of nothing, for if it were begotten of something, then the begotten would not come

from a beginning. But if unbegotten, it must also be indestructible; for if beginning were destroyed, there

could be no beginning out of anything, nor anything out of a beginning; and all things must have a beginning.

And therefore the self moving is the beginning of motion; and this can neither be destroyed nor begotten,

else the whole heavens and all creation would collapse and stand still, and never again have motion or birth.

But if the selfmoving is proved to be immortal, he who affirms that selfmotion is the very idea and essence

of the soul will not be put to confusion. For the body which is moved from without is soulless; but that which

is moved from within has a soul, for such is the nature of the soul. But if this be true, must not the soul be the

selfmoving, and therefore of necessity unbegotten and immortal? Enough of the soul's immortality.

Of the nature of the soul, though her true form be ever a theme of large and more than mortal discourse, let

me speak briefly, and in a figure. And let the figure be compositea pair of winged horses and a charioteer.

Now the winged horses and the charioteers of the gods are all of them noble and of noble descent, but those

of other races are mixed; the human charioteer drives his in a pair; and one of them is noble and of noble

breed, and the other is ignoble and of ignoble breed; and the driving of them of necessity gives a great deal of

trouble to him. I will endeavour to explain to you in what way the mortal differs from the immortal creature.

The soul in her totality has the care of inanimate being everywhere, and traverses the whole heaven in divers

forms appearingwhen perfect and fully winged she soars upward, and orders the whole world; whereas the

imperfect soul, losing her wings and drooping in her flight at last settles on the solid groundthere, finding a

home, she receives an earthly frame which appears to be selfmoved, but is really moved by her power; and

this composition of soul and body is called a living and mortal creature. For immortal no such union can be

reasonably believed to be; although fancy, not having seen nor surely known the nature of God, may imagine

an immortal creature having both a body and also a soul which are united throughout all time. Let that,

however, be as God wills, and be spoken of acceptably to him. And now let us ask the reason why the soul

The wing is the corporeal element which is most akin to the divine, and which by nature tends to soar aloft

and carry that which gravitates downwards into the upper region, which is the habitation of the gods. The

divine is beauty, wisdom, goodness, and the like; and by these the wing of the soul is nourished, and grows

apace; but when fed upon evil and foulness and the opposite of good, wastes and falls away. Zeus, the mighty

lord, holding the reins of a winged chariot, leads the way in heaven, ordering all and taking care of all; and

there follows him the array of gods and demigods, marshalled in eleven bands; Hestia alone abides at home

in the house of heaven; of the rest they who are reckoned among the princely twelve march in their appointed

order. They see many blessed sights in the inner heaven, and there are many ways to and fro, along which the

blessed gods are passing, every one doing his own work; he may follow who will and can, for jealousy has no

place in the celestial choir. But when they go to banquet and festival, then they move up the steep to the top

of the vault of heaven. The chariots of the gods in even poise, obeying the rein, glide rapidly; but the others

labour, for the vicious steed goes heavily, weighing down the charioteer to the earth when his steed has not

been thoroughly trained:and this is the hour of agony and extremest conflict for the soul. For the

immortals, when they are at the end of their course, go forth and stand upon the outside of heaven, and the

revolution of the spheres carries them round, and they behold the things beyond. But of the heaven which is

above the heavens, what earthly poet ever did or ever will sing worthily? It is such as I will describe; for I

must dare to speak the truth, when truth is my theme. There abides the very being with which true knowledge

is concerned; the colourless, formless, intangible essence, visible only to mind, the pilot of the soul. The

divine intelligence, being nurtured upon mind and pure knowledge, and the intelligence of every soul which

is capable of receiving the food proper to it, rejoices at beholding reality, and once more gazing upon truth, is

replenished and made glad, until the revolution of the worlds brings her round again to the same place. In the

revolution she beholds justice, and temperance, and knowledge absolute, not in the form of generation or of

relation, which men call existence, but knowledge absolute in existence absolute; and beholding the other true

existences in like manner, and feasting upon them, she passes down into the interior of the heavens and

returns home; and there the charioteer putting up his horses at the stall, gives them ambrosia to eat and nectar

Such is the life of the gods; but of other souls, that which follows God best and is likest to him lifts the head

of the charioteer into the outer world, and is carried round in the revolution, troubled indeed by the steeds,

and with difficulty beholding true being; while another only rises and falls, and sees, and again fails to see by

reason of the unruliness of the steeds. The rest of the souls are also longing after the upper world and they all

follow, but not being strong enough they are carried round below the surface, plunging, treading on one

another, each striving to be first; and there is confusion and perspiration and the extremity of effort; and many

of them are lamed or have their wings broken through the ill driving of the charioteers; and all of them after

a fruitless toil, not having attained to the mysteries of true being, go away, and feed upon opinion. The reason

why the souls exhibit this exceeding eagerness to behold the plain of truth is that pasturage is found there,

which is suited to the highest part of the soul; and the wing on which the soul soars is nourished with this.

And there is a law of Destiny, that the soul which attains any vision of truth in company with a god is

preserved from harm until the next period, and if attaining always is always unharmed. But when she is

unable to follow, and fails to behold the truth, and through some illhap sinks beneath the double load of

forgetfulness and vice, and her wings fall from her and she drops to the ground, then the law ordains that this

soul shall at her first birth pass, not into any other animal, but only into man; and the soul which has seen

most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or some musical and loving nature; that which

has seen truth in the second degree shall be some righteous king or warrior chief; the soul which is of the

third class shall be a politician, or economist, or trader; the fourth shall be a lover of gymnastic toils, or a

physician; the fifth shall lead the life of a prophet or hierophant; to the sixth the character of poet or some

other imitative artist will be assigned; to the seventh the life of an artisan or husbandman; to the eighth that of

a sophist or demagogue; to the ninth that of a tyrantall these are states of probation, in which he who does

Ten thousand years must elapse before the soul of each one can return to the place from whence she came, for

she cannot grow her wings in less; only the soul of a philosopher, guileless and true, or the soul of a lover,

who is not devoid of philosophy, may acquire wings in the third of the recurring periods of a thousand years;

he is distinguished from the ordinary good man who gains wings in three thousand years:and they who

choose this life three times in succession have wings given them, and go away at the end of three thousand

years. But the others (The philosopher alone is not subject to judgment (krisis), for he has never lost the

vision of truth.) receive judgment when they have completed their first life, and after the judgment they go,

some of them to the houses of correction which are under the earth, and are punished; others to some place in

heaven whither they are lightly borne by justice, and there they live in a manner worthy of the life which they

led here when in the form of men. And at the end of the first thousand years the good souls and also the evil

souls both come to draw lots and choose their second life, and they may take any which they please. The soul

of a man may pass into the life of a beast, or from the beast return again into the man. But the soul which has

never seen the truth will not pass into the human form. For a man must have intelligence of universals, and be

able to proceed from the many particulars of sense to one conception of reason;this is the recollection of

those things which our soul once saw while following Godwhen regardless of that which we now call

being she raised her head up towards the true being. And therefore the mind of the philosopher alone has

wings; and this is just, for he is always, according to the measure of his abilities, clinging in recollection to

those things in which God abides, and in beholding which He is what He is. And he who employs aright these

memories is ever being initiated into perfect mysteries and alone becomes truly perfect. But, as he forgets

earthly interests and is rapt in the divine, the vulgar deem him mad, and rebuke him; they do not see that he is

Thus far I have been speaking of the fourth and last kind of madness, which is imputed to him who, when he

sees the beauty of earth, is transported with the recollection of the true beauty; he would like to fly away, but

he cannot; he is like a bird fluttering and looking upward and careless of the world below; and he is therefore

thought to be mad. And I have shown this of all inspirations to be the noblest and highest and the offspring of

the highest to him who has or shares in it, and that he who loves the beautiful is called a lover because he

partakes of it. For, as has been already said, every soul of man has in the way of nature beheld true being; this

was the condition of her passing into the form of man. But all souls do not easily recall the things of the other

world; they may have seen them for a short time only, or they may have been unfortunate in their earthly lot,

and, having had their hearts turned to unrighteousness through some corrupting influence, they may have lost

the memory of the holy things which once they saw. Few only retain an adequate remembrance of them; and

they, when they behold here any image of that other world, are rapt in amazement; but they are ignorant of

what this rapture means, because they do not clearly perceive. For there is no light of justice or temperance or

any of the higher ideas which are precious to souls in the earthly copies of them: they are seen through a glass

dimly; and there are few who, going to the images, behold in them the realities, and these only with

difficulty. There was a time when with the rest of the happy band they saw beauty shining in brightness,we

philosophers following in the train of Zeus, others in company with other gods; and then we beheld the

beatific vision and were initiated into a mystery which may be truly called most blessed, celebrated by us in

our state of innocence, before we had any experience of evils to come, when we were admitted to the sight of

apparitions innocent and simple and calm and happy, which we beheld shining in pure light, pure ourselves

and not yet enshrined in that living tomb which we carry about, now that we are imprisoned in the body, like

an oyster in his shell. Let me linger over the memory of scenes which have passed away.

But of beauty, I repeat again that we saw her there shining in company with the celestial forms; and coming

to earth we find her here too, shining in clearness through the clearest aperture of sense. For sight is the most

piercing of our bodily senses; though not by that is wisdom seen; her loveliness would have been transporting

if there had been a visible image of her, and the other ideas, if they had visible counterparts, would be equally

lovely. But this is the privilege of beauty, that being the loveliest she is also the most palpable to sight. Now

he who is not newly initiated or who has become corrupted, does not easily rise out of this world to the sight

of true beauty in the other; he looks only at her earthly namesake, and instead of being awed at the sight of

her, he is given over to pleasure, and like a brutish beast he rushes on to enjoy and beget; he consorts with

wantonness, and is not afraid or ashamed of pursuing pleasure in violation of nature. But he whose initiation

is recent, and who has been the spectator of many glories in the other world, is amazed when he sees any one

having a godlike face or form, which is the expression of divine beauty; and at first a shudder runs through

him, and again the old awe steals over him; then looking upon the face of his beloved as of a god he

reverences him, and if he were not afraid of being thought a downright madman, he would sacrifice to his

beloved as to the image of a god; then while he gazes on him there is a sort of reaction, and the shudder

passes into an unusual heat and perspiration; for, as he receives the effluence of beauty through the eyes, the

wing moistens and he warms. And as he warms, the parts out of which the wing grew, and which had been

hitherto closed and rigid, and had prevented the wing from shooting forth, are melted, and as nourishment

streams upon him, the lower end of the wing begins to swell and grow from the root upwards; and the growth

extends under the whole soulfor once the whole was winged. During this process the whole soul is all in a

state of ebullition and effervescence,which may be compared to the irritation and uneasiness in the gums at

the time of cutting teeth,bubbles up, and has a feeling of uneasiness and tickling; but when in like manner

the soul is beginning to grow wings, the beauty of the beloved meets her eye and she receives the sensible

warm motion of particles which flow towards her, therefore called emotion (imeros), and is refreshed and

warmed by them, and then she ceases from her pain with joy. But when she is parted from her beloved and

her moisture fails, then the orifices of the passage out of which the wing shoots dry up and close, and

intercept the germ of the wing; which, being shut up with the emotion, throbbing as with the pulsations of an

artery, pricks the aperture which is nearest, until at length the entire soul is pierced and maddened and pained,

and at the recollection of beauty is again delighted. And from both of them together the soul is oppressed at

the strangeness of her condition, and is in a great strait and excitement, and in her madness can neither sleep

by night nor abide in her place by day. And wherever she thinks that she will behold the beautiful one, thither

in her desire she runs. And when she has seen him, and bathed herself in the waters of beauty, her constraint

is loosened, and she is refreshed, and has no more pangs and pains; and this is the sweetest of all pleasures at

the time, and is the reason why the soul of the lover will never forsake his beautiful one, whom he esteems

above all; he has forgotten mother and brethren and companions, and he thinks nothing of the neglect and

loss of his property; the rules and proprieties of life, on which he formerly prided himself, he now despises,

and is ready to sleep like a servant, wherever he is allowed, as near as he can to his desired one, who is the

object of his worship, and the physician who can alone assuage the greatness of his pain. And this state, my

dear imaginary youth to whom I am talking, is by men called love, and among the gods has a name at which

you, in your simplicity, may be inclined to mock; there are two lines in the apocryphal writings of Homer in

which the name occurs. One of them is rather outrageous, and not altogether metrical. They are as follows:

'Mortals call him fluttering love, But the immortals call him winged one, Because the growing of wings (Or,

You may believe this, but not unless you like. At any rate the loves of lovers and their causes are such as I

Now the lover who is taken to be the attendant of Zeus is better able to bear the winged god, and can endure a

heavier burden; but the attendants and companions of Ares, when under the influence of love, if they fancy

that they have been at all wronged, are ready to kill and put an end to themselves and their beloved. And he

who follows in the train of any other god, while he is unspoiled and the impression lasts, honours and

imitates him, as far as he is able; and after the manner of his God he behaves in his intercourse with his

beloved and with the rest of the world during the first period of his earthly existence. Every one chooses his

love from the ranks of beauty according to his character, and this he makes his god, and fashions and adorns

as a sort of image which he is to fall down and worship. The followers of Zeus desire that their beloved

should have a soul like him; and therefore they seek out some one of a philosophical and imperial nature, and

when they have found him and loved him, they do all they can to confirm such a nature in him, and if they

have no experience of such a disposition hitherto, they learn of any one who can teach them, and themselves

follow in the same way. And they have the less difficulty in finding the nature of their own god in

themselves, because they have been compelled to gaze intensely on him; their recollection clings to him, and

they become possessed of him, and receive from him their character and disposition, so far as man can

participate in God. The qualities of their god they attribute to the beloved, wherefore they love him all the

more, and if, like the Bacchic Nymphs, they draw inspiration from Zeus, they pour out their own fountain

upon him, wanting to make him as like as possible to their own god. But those who are the followers of Here

seek a royal love, and when they have found him they do just the same with him; and in like manner the

followers of Apollo, and of every other god walking in the ways of their god, seek a love who is to be made

like him whom they serve, and when they have found him, they themselves imitate their god, and persuade

their love to do the same, and educate him into the manner and nature of the god as far as they each can; for

no feelings of envy or jealousy are entertained by them towards their beloved, but they do their utmost to

create in him the greatest likeness of themselves and of the god whom they honour. Thus fair and blissful to

the beloved is the desire of the inspired lover, and the initiation of which I speak into the mysteries of true

love, if he be captured by the lover and their purpose is effected. Now the beloved is taken captive in the

As I said at the beginning of this tale, I divided each soul into three two horses and a charioteer; and one of

the horses was good and the other bad: the division may remain, but I have not yet explained in what the

goodness or badness of either consists, and to that I will now proceed. The righthand horse is upright and

cleanly made; he has a lofty neck and an aquiline nose; his colour is white, and his eyes dark; he is a lover of

honour and modesty and temperance, and the follower of true glory; he needs no touch of the whip, but is

guided by word and admonition only. The other is a crooked lumbering animal, put together anyhow; he has

a short thick neck; he is flatfaced and of a dark colour, with grey eyes and bloodred complexion (Or with

grey and bloodshot eyes.); the mate of insolence and pride, shageared and deaf, hardly yielding to whip

and spur. Now when the charioteer beholds the vision of love, and has his whole soul warmed through sense,

and is full of the prickings and ticklings of desire, the obedient steed, then as always under the government of

shame, refrains from leaping on the beloved; but the other, heedless of the pricks and of the blows of the

whip, plunges and runs away, giving all manner of trouble to his companion and the charioteer, whom he

forces to approach the beloved and to remember the joys of love. They at first indignantly oppose him and

will not be urged on to do terrible and unlawful deeds; but at last, when he persists in plaguing them, they

yield and agree to do as he bids them. And now they are at the spot and behold the flashing beauty of the

beloved; which when the charioteer sees, his memory is carried to the true beauty, whom he beholds in

company with Modesty like an image placed upon a holy pedestal. He sees her, but he is afraid and falls

backwards in adoration, and by his fall is compelled to pull back the reins with such violence as to bring both

the steeds on their haunches, the one willing and unresisting, the unruly one very unwilling; and when they

have gone back a little, the one is overcome with shame and wonder, and his whole soul is bathed in

perspiration; the other, when the pain is over which the bridle and the fall had given him, having with

difficulty taken breath, is full of wrath and reproaches, which he heaps upon the charioteer and his fellow

steed, for want of courage and manhood, declaring that they have been false to their agreement and guilty of

desertion. Again they refuse, and again he urges them on, and will scarce yield to their prayer that he would

wait until another time. When the appointed hour comes, they make as if they had forgotten, and he reminds

them, fighting and neighing and dragging them on, until at length he on the same thoughts intent, forces them

to draw near again. And when they are near he stoops his head and puts up his tail, and takes the bit in his

teeth and pulls shamelessly. Then the charioteer is worse off than ever; he falls back like a racer at the barrier,

and with a still more violent wrench drags the bit out of the teeth of the wild steed and covers his abusive

tongue and jaws with blood, and forces his legs and haunches to the ground and punishes him sorely. And

when this has happened several times and the villain has ceased from his wanton way, he is tamed and

humbled, and follows the will of the charioteer, and when he sees the beautiful one he is ready to die of fear.

And from that time forward the soul of the lover follows the beloved in modesty and holy fear.

And so the beloved who, like a god, has received every true and loyal service from his lover, not in pretence

but in reality, being also himself of a nature friendly to his admirer, if in former days he has blushed to own

his passion and turned away his lover, because his youthful companions or others slanderously told him that

he would be disgraced, now as years advance, at the appointed age and time, is led to receive him into

communion. For fate which has ordained that there shall be no friendship among the evil has also ordained

that there shall ever be friendship among the good. And the beloved when he has received him into

communion and intimacy, is quite amazed at the goodwill of the lover; he recognises that the inspired friend

is worth all other friends or kinsmen; they have nothing of friendship in them worthy to be compared with

his. And when this feeling continues and he is nearer to him and embraces him, in gymnastic exercises and at

other times of meeting, then the fountain of that stream, which Zeus when he was in love with Ganymede

named Desire, overflows upon the lover, and some enters into his soul, and some when he is filled flows out

again; and as a breeze or an echo rebounds from the smooth rocks and returns whence it came, so does the

stream of beauty, passing through the eyes which are the windows of the soul, come back to the beautiful

one; there arriving and quickening the passages of the wings, watering them and inclining them to grow, and

filling the soul of the beloved also with love. And thus he loves, but he knows not what; he does not

understand and cannot explain his own state; he appears to have caught the infection of blindness from

another; the lover is his mirror in whom he is beholding himself, but he is not aware of this. When he is with

the lover, both cease from their pain, but when he is away then he longs as he is longed for, and has love's

image, love for love (Anteros) lodging in his breast, which he calls and believes to be not love but friendship

only, and his desire is as the desire of the other, but weaker; he wants to see him, touch him, kiss him,

embrace him, and probably not long afterwards his desire is accomplished. When they meet, the wanton steed

of the lover has a word to say to the charioteer; he would like to have a little pleasure in return for many

pains, but the wanton steed of the beloved says not a word, for he is bursting with passion which he

understands not;he throws his arms round the lover and embraces him as his dearest friend; and, when they

are side by side, he is not in a state in which he can refuse the lover anything, if he ask him; although his

fellowsteed and the charioteer oppose him with the arguments of shame and reason. After this their

happiness depends upon their selfcontrol; if the better elements of the mind which lead to order and

philosophy prevail, then they pass their life here in happiness and harmonymasters of themselves and

orderlyenslaving the vicious and emancipating the virtuous elements of the soul; and when the end comes,

they are light and winged for flight, having conquered in one of the three heavenly or truly Olympian

victories; nor can human discipline or divine inspiration confer any greater blessing on man than this. If, on

the other hand, they leave philosophy and lead the lower life of ambition, then probably, after wine or in

some other careless hour, the two wanton animals take the two souls when off their guard and bring them

together, and they accomplish that desire of their hearts which to the many is bliss; and this having once

enjoyed they continue to enjoy, yet rarely because they have not the approval of the whole soul. They too are

dear, but not so dear to one another as the others, either at the time of their love or afterwards. They consider

that they have given and taken from each other the most sacred pledges, and they may not break them and fall

into enmity. At last they pass out of the body, unwinged, but eager to soar, and thus obtain no mean reward of

love and madness. For those who have once begun the heavenward pilgrimage may not go down again to

darkness and the journey beneath the earth, but they live in light always; happy companions in their

pilgrimage, and when the time comes at which they receive their wings they have the same plumage because

Thus great are the heavenly blessings which the friendship of a lover will confer upon you, my youth.

Whereas the attachment of the nonlover, which is alloyed with a worldly prudence and has worldly and

niggardly ways of doling out benefits, will breed in your soul those vulgar qualities which the populace

applaud, will send you bowling round the earth during a period of nine thousand years, and leave you a fool

And thus, dear Eros, I have made and paid my recantation, as well and as fairly as I could; more especially in

the matter of the poetical figures which I was compelled to use, because Phaedrus would have them. And

now forgive the past and accept the present, and be gracious and merciful to me, and do not in thine anger

deprive me of sight, or take from me the art of love which thou hast given me, but grant that I may be yet

more esteemed in the eyes of the fair. And if Phaedrus or I myself said anything rude in our first speeches,

blame Lysias, who is the father of the brat, and let us have no more of his progeny; bid him study philosophy,

like his brother Polemarchus; and then his lover Phaedrus will no longer halt between two opinions, but will

PHAEDRUS: I join in the prayer, Socrates, and say with you, if this be for my good, may your words come

to pass. But why did you make your second oration so much finer than the first? I wonder why. And I begin

to be afraid that I shall lose conceit of Lysias, and that he will appear tame in comparison, even if he be

willing to put another as fine and as long as yours into the field, which I doubt. For quite lately one of your

politicians was abusing him on this very account; and called him a 'speech writer' again and again. So that a

SOCRATES: What a very amusing notion! But I think, my young man, that you are much mistaken in your

friend if you imagine that he is frightened at a little noise; and, possibly, you think that his assailant was in

PHAEDRUS: I thought, Socrates, that he was. And you are aware that the greatest and most influential

statesmen are ashamed of writing speeches and leaving them in a written form, lest they should be called

SOCRATES: You seem to be unconscious, Phaedrus, that the 'sweet elbow' (A proverb, like 'the grapes are

sour,' applied to pleasures which cannot be had, meaning sweet things which, like the elbow, are out of the

reach of the mouth. The promised pleasure turns out to be a long and tedious affair.) of the proverb is really

the long arm of the Nile. And you appear to be equally unaware of the fact that this sweet elbow of theirs is

also a long arm. For there is nothing of which our great politicians are so fond as of writing speeches and

bequeathing them to posterity. And they add their admirers' names at the top of the writing, out of gratitude to

SOCRATES: Why, do you not know that when a politician writes, he begins with the names of his

SOCRATES: Why, he begins in this manner: 'Be it enacted by the senate, the people, or both, on the motion

of a certain person,' who is our author; and so putting on a serious face, he proceeds to display his own

wisdom to his admirers in what is often a long and tedious composition. Now what is that sort of thing but a

SOCRATES: And if the law is finally approved, then the author leaves the theatre in high delight; but if the

law is rejected and he is done out of his speechmaking, and not thought good enough to write, then he and

SOCRATES: So far are they from despising, or rather so highly do they value the practice of writing.

SOCRATES: And when the king or orator has the power, as Lycurgus or Solon or Darius had, of attaining

an immortality or authorship in a state, is he not thought by posterity, when they see his compositions, and

SOCRATES: Then do you think that any one of this class, however ill disposed, would reproach Lysias

PHAEDRUS: Not upon your view; for according to you he would be casting a slur upon his own favourite

SOCRATES: Any one may see that there is no disgrace in the mere fact of writing.

SOCRATES: And what is well and what is badlyneed we ask Lysias, or any other poet or orator, who

ever wrote or will write either a political or any other work, in metre or out of metre, poet or prose writer, to

PHAEDRUS: Need we? For what should a man live if not for the pleasures of discourse? Surely not for the

sake of bodily pleasures, which almost always have previous pain as a condition of them, and therefore are

SOCRATES: There is time enough. And I believe that the grasshoppers chirruping after their manner in the

heat of the sun over our heads are talking to one another and looking down at us. What would they say if they

saw that we, like the many, are not conversing, but slumbering at midday, lulled by their voices, too

indolent to think? Would they not have a right to laugh at us? They might imagine that we were slaves, who,

coming to rest at a place of resort of theirs, like sheep lie asleep at noon around the well. But if they see us

discoursing, and like Odysseus sailing past them, deaf to their siren voices, they may perhaps, out of respect,

give us of the gifts which they receive from the gods that they may impart them to men.

SOCRATES: A lover of music like yourself ought surely to have heard the story of the grasshoppers, who

are said to have been human beings in an age before the Muses. And when the Muses came and song

appeared they were ravished with delight; and singing always, never thought of eating and drinking, until at

last in their forgetfulness they died. And now they live again in the grasshoppers; and this is the return which

the Muses make to themthey neither hunger, nor thirst, but from the hour of their birth are always singing,

and never eating or drinking; and when they die they go and inform the Muses in heaven who honours them

on earth. They win the love of Terpsichore for the dancers by their report of them; of Erato for the lovers, and

of the other Muses for those who do them honour, according to the several ways of honouring them;of

Calliope the eldest Muse and of Urania who is next to her, for the philosophers, of whose music the

grasshoppers make report to them; for these are the Muses who are chiefly concerned with heaven and

thought, divine as well as human, and they have the sweetest utterance. For many reasons, then, we ought

SOCRATES: Shall we discuss the rules of writing and speech as we were proposing?

SOCRATES: In good speaking should not the mind of the speaker know the truth of the matter about which

PHAEDRUS: And yet, Socrates, I have heard that he who would be an orator has nothing to do with true

justice, but only with that which is likely to be approved by the many who sit in judgment; nor with the truly

good or honourable, but only with opinion about them, and that from opinion comes persuasion, and not from

SOCRATES: The words of the wise are not to be set aside; for there is probably something in them; and

SOCRATES: Let us put the matter thus:Suppose that I persuaded you to buy a horse and go to the wars.

Neither of us knew what a horse was like, but I knew that you believed a horse to be of tame animals the one

SOCRATES: There is something more ridiculous coming:Suppose, further, that in sober earnest I, having

persuaded you of this, went and composed a speech in honour of an ass, whom I entitled a horse beginning:

'A noble animal and a most useful possession, especially in war, and you may get on his back and fight, and

SOCRATES: Ridiculous! Yes; but is not even a ridiculous friend better than a cunning enemy?

SOCRATES: And when the orator instead of putting an ass in the place of a horse, puts good for evil, being

himself as ignorant of their true nature as the city on which he imposes is ignorant; and having studied the

notions of the multitude, falsely persuades them not about 'the shadow of an ass,' which he confounds with a

horse, but about good which he confounds with evil,what will be the harvest which rhetoric will be likely

SOCRATES: But perhaps rhetoric has been getting too roughly handled by us, and she might answer: What

amazing nonsense you are talking! As if I forced any man to learn to speak in ignorance of the truth!

Whatever my advice may be worth, I should have told him to arrive at the truth first, and then come to me. At

the same time I boldly assert that mere knowledge of the truth will not give you the art of persuasion.

SOCRATES: Quite true; if only the other arguments which remain to be brought up bear her witness that she

is an art at all. But I seem to hear them arraying themselves on the opposite side, declaring that she speaks

falsely, and that rhetoric is a mere routine and trick, not an art. Lo! a Spartan appears, and says that there

never is nor ever will be a real art of speaking which is divorced from the truth.

PHAEDRUS: And what are these arguments, Socrates? Bring them out that we may examine them.

SOCRATES: Come out, fair children, and convince Phaedrus, who is the father of similar beauties, that he

will never be able to speak about anything as he ought to speak unless he have a knowledge of philosophy.

SOCRATES: Is not rhetoric, taken generally, a universal art of enchanting the mind by arguments; which is

practised not only in courts and public assemblies, but in private houses also, having to do with all matters,

great as well as small, good and bad alike, and is in all equally right, and equally to be esteemedthat is

PHAEDRUS: Nay, not exactly that; I should say rather that I have heard the art confined to speaking and

SOCRATES: Then I suppose that you have only heard of the rhetoric of Nestor and Odysseus, which they

composed in their leisure hours when at Troy, and never of the rhetoric of Palamedes?

PHAEDRUS: No more than of Nestor and Odysseus, unless Gorgias is your Nestor, and Thrasymachus or

SOCRATES: Perhaps that is my meaning. But let us leave them. And do you tell me, instead, what are

SOCRATES: And a professor of the art will make the same thing appear to the same persons to be at one

SOCRATES: And when he speaks in the assembly, he will make the same things seem good to the city at

SOCRATES: Have we not heard of the Eleatic Palamedes (Zeno), who has an art of speaking by which he

makes the same things appear to his hearers like and unlike, one and many, at rest and in motion?

SOCRATES: The art of disputation, then, is not confined to the courts and the assembly, but is one and the

same in every use of language; this is the art, if there be such an art, which is able to find a likeness of

everything to which a likeness can be found, and draws into the light of day the likenesses and disguises

SOCRATES: Let me put the matter thus: When will there be more chance of deceptionwhen the

SOCRATES: And you will be less likely to be discovered in passing by degrees into the other extreme than

SOCRATES: He, then, who would deceive others, and not be deceived, must exactly know the real

SOCRATES: And if he is ignorant of the true nature of any subject, how can he detect the greater or less

degree of likeness in other things to that of which by the hypothesis he is ignorant?

SOCRATES: And when men are deceived and their notions are at variance with realities, it is clear that the

SOCRATES: Then he who would be a master of the art must understand the real nature of everything; or he

will never know either how to make the gradual departure from truth into the opposite of truth which is

SOCRATES: He then, who being ignorant of the truth aims at appearances, will only attain an art of rhetoric

SOCRATES: Shall I propose that we look for examples of art and want of art, according to our notion of

them, in the speech of Lysias which you have in your hand, and in my own speech?

PHAEDRUS: Nothing could be better; and indeed I think that our previous argument has been too abstract

SOCRATES: Yes; and the two speeches happen to afford a very good example of the way in which the

speaker who knows the truth may, without any serious purpose, steal away the hearts of his hearers. This

piece of good fortune I attribute to the local deities; and, perhaps, the prophets of the Muses who are singing

over our heads may have imparted their inspiration to me. For I do not imagine that I have any rhetorical art

PHAEDRUS: 'You know how matters stand with me, and how, as I conceive, they might be arranged for our

common interest; and I maintain that I ought not to fail in my suit, because I am not your lover. For lovers

SOCRATES: Every one is aware that about some things we are agreed, whereas about other things we

SOCRATES: When any one speaks of iron and silver, is not the same thing present in the minds of all?

SOCRATES: But when any one speaks of justice and goodness we part company and are at odds with one

SOCRATES: In which are we more likely to be deceived, and in which has rhetoric the greater power?

SOCRATES: Then the rhetorician ought to make a regular division, and acquire a distinct notion of both

classes, as well of that in which the many err, as of that in which they do not err?

SOCRATES: Yes; and in the next place he must have a keen eye for the observation of particulars in

speaking, and not make a mistake about the class to which they are to be referred.

SOCRATES: Now to which class does love belongto the debatable or to the undisputed class?

PHAEDRUS: To the debatable, clearly; for if not, do you think that love would have allowed you to say as

you did, that he is an evil both to the lover and the beloved, and also the greatest possible good?

SOCRATES: Capital. But will you tell me whether I defined love at the beginning of my speech? for, having

SOCRATES: Then I perceive that the Nymphs of Achelous and Pan the son of Hermes, who inspired me,

were far better rhetoricians than Lysias the son of Cephalus. Alas! how inferior to them he is! But perhaps I

am mistaken; and Lysias at the commencement of his lover's speech did insist on our supposing love to be

something or other which he fancied him to be, and according to this model he fashioned and framed the

PHAEDRUS: 'You know how matters stand with me, and how, as I conceive, they might be arranged for our

common interest; and I maintain I ought not to fail in my suit because I am not your lover, for lovers repent

SOCRATES: Here he appears to have done just the reverse of what he ought; for he has begun at the end,

and is swimming on his back through the flood to the place of starting. His address to the fair youth begins

SOCRATES: Then as to the other topicsare they not thrown down anyhow? Is there any principle in

them? Why should the next topic follow next in order, or any other topic? I cannot help fancying in my

ignorance that he wrote off boldly just what came into his head, but I dare say that you would recognize a

PHAEDRUS: You have too good an opinion of me if you think that I have any such insight into his

SOCRATES: At any rate, you will allow that every discourse ought to be a living creature, having a body of

its own and a head and feet; there should be a middle, beginning, and end, adapted to one another and to the

SOCRATES: Can this be said of the discourse of Lysias? See whether you can find any more connexion in

his words than in the epitaph which is said by some to have been inscribed on the grave of Midas the

Now in this rhyme whether a line comes first or comes last, as you will perceive, makes no difference.

SOCRATES: Well, I will say no more about your friend's speech lest I should give offence to you; although

I think that it might furnish many other examples of what a man ought rather to avoid. But I will proceed to

the other speech, which, as I think, is also suggestive to students of rhetoric.

SOCRATES: The two speeches, as you may remember, were unlike; the one argued that the lover and the

SOCRATES: You should rather say 'madly;' and madness was the argument of them, for, as I said, 'love is a

SOCRATES: And of madness there were two kinds; one produced by human infirmity, the other was a

SOCRATES: The divine madness was subdivided into four kinds, prophetic, initiatory, poetic, erotic, having

four gods presiding over them; the first was the inspiration of Apollo, the second that of Dionysus, the third

that of the Muses, the fourth that of Aphrodite and Eros. In the description of the last kind of madness, which

was also said to be the best, we spoke of the affection of love in a figure, into which we introduced a

tolerably credible and possibly true though partly erring myth, which was also a hymn in honour of Love,

who is your lord and also mine, Phaedrus, and the guardian of fair children, and to him we sung the hymn in

SOCRATES: Let us take this instance and note how the transition was made from blame to praise.

SOCRATES: I mean to say that the composition was mostly playful. Yet in these chance fancies of the hour

were involved two principles of which we should be too glad to have a clearer description if art could give us

SOCRATES: First, the comprehension of scattered particulars in one idea; as in our definition of love, which

whether true or false certainly gave clearness and consistency to the discourse, the speaker should define his

SOCRATES: The second principle is that of division into species according to the natural formation, where

the joint is, not breaking any part as a bad carver might. Just as our two discourses, alike assumed, first of all,

a single form of unreason; and then, as the body which from being one becomes double and may be divided

into a left side and right side, each having parts right and left of the same nameafter this manner the

speaker proceeded to divide the parts of the left side and did not desist until he found in them an evil or

lefthanded love which he justly reviled; and the other discourse leading us to the madness which lay on the

right side, found another love, also having the same name, but divine, which the speaker held up before us

SOCRATES: I am myself a great lover of these processes of division and generalization; they help me to

speak and to think. And if I find any man who is able to see 'a One and Many' in nature, him I follow, and

'walk in his footsteps as if he were a god.' And those who have this art, I have hitherto been in the habit of

calling dialecticians; but God knows whether the name is right or not. And I should like to know what name

you would give to your or to Lysias' disciples, and whether this may not be that famous art of rhetoric which

Thrasymachus and others teach and practise? Skilful speakers they are, and impart their skill to any who is

PHAEDRUS: Yes, they are royal men; but their art is not the same with the art of those whom you call, and

SOCRATES: What do you mean? The remains of it, if there be anything remaining which can be brought

under rules of art, must be a fine thing; and, at any rate, is not to be despised by you and me. But how much

SOCRATES: Yes; thank you for reminding me:There is the exordium, showing how the speech should

SOCRATES: Then follows the statement of facts, and upon that witnesses; thirdly, proofs; fourthly,

probabilities are to come; the great Byzantian wordmaker also speaks, if I am not mistaken, of confirmation

SOCRATES: Yes; and he tells how refutation or further refutation is to be managed, whether in accusation

or defence. I ought also to mention the illustrious Parian, Evenus, who first invented insinuations and indirect

praises; and also indirect censures, which according to some he put into verse to help the memory. But shall I

'to dumb forgetfulness consign' Tisias and Gorgias, who are not ignorant that probability is superior to truth,

and who by force of argument make the little appear great and the great little, disguise the new in old fashions

and the old in new fashions, and have discovered forms for everything, either short or going on to infinity. I

remember Prodicus laughing when I told him of this; he said that he had himself discovered the true rule of

SOCRATES: Then there is Hippias the Elean stranger, who probably agrees with him.

SOCRATES: And there is also Polus, who has treasuries of diplasiology, and gnomology, and eikonology,

and who teaches in them the names of which Licymnius made him a present; they were to give a polish.

SOCRATES: Yes, rules of correct diction and many other fine precepts; for the 'sorrows of a poor old man,'

or any other pathetic case, no one is better than the Chalcedonian giant; he can put a whole company of

people into a passion and out of one again by his mighty magic, and is firstrate at inventing or disposing of

any sort of calumny on any grounds or none. All of them agree in asserting that a speech should end in a

PHAEDRUS: You mean that there should be a summing up of the arguments in order to remind the hearers

SOCRATES: I have now said all that I have to say of the art of rhetoric: have you anything to add?

SOCRATES: Leave the unimportant and let us bring the really important question into the light of day,

SOCRATES: It has. But I should like to know whether you have the same feeling as I have about the

SOCRATES: I will. Suppose a person to come to your friend Eryximachus, or to his father Acumenus, and

to say to him: 'I know how to apply drugs which shall have either a heating or a cooling effect, and I can give

a vomit and also a purge, and all that sort of thing; and knowing all this, as I do, I claim to be a physician and

to make physicians by imparting this knowledge to others,'what do you suppose that they would say?

PHAEDRUS: They would be sure to ask him whether he knew 'to whom' he would give his medicines, and

SOCRATES: And suppose that he were to reply: 'No; I know nothing of all that; I expect the patient who

PHAEDRUS: They would say in reply that he is a madman or a pedant who fancies that he is a physician

because he has read something in a book, or has stumbled on a prescription or two, although he has no real

SOCRATES: And suppose a person were to come to Sophocles or Euripides and say that he knows how to

make a very long speech about a small matter, and a short speech about a great matter, and also a sorrowful

speech, or a terrible, or threatening speech, or any other kind of speech, and in teaching this fancies that he is

PHAEDRUS: They too would surely laugh at him if he fancies that tragedy is anything but the arranging of

these elements in a manner which will be suitable to one another and to the whole.

SOCRATES: But I do not suppose that they would be rude or abusive to him: Would they not treat him as a

musician a man who thinks that he is a harmonist because he knows how to pitch the highest and lowest note;

happening to meet such an one he would not say to him savagely, 'Fool, you are mad!' But like a musician, in

a gentle and harmonious tone of voice, he would answer: 'My good friend, he who would be a harmonist

must certainly know this, and yet he may understand nothing of harmony if he has not got beyond your stage

of knowledge, for you only know the preliminaries of harmony and not harmony itself.'

SOCRATES: And will not Sophocles say to the display of the wouldbe tragedian, that this is not tragedy

but the preliminaries of tragedy? and will not Acumenus say the same of medicine to the wouldbe

SOCRATES: And if Adrastus the mellifluous or Pericles heard of these wonderful arts, brachylogies and

eikonologies and all the hard names which we have been endeavouring to draw into the light of day, what

would they say? Instead of losing temper and applying uncomplimentary epithets, as you and I have been

doing, to the authors of such an imaginary art, their superior wisdom would rather censure us, as well as

them. 'Have a little patience, Phaedrus and Socrates, they would say; you should not be in such a passion with

those who from some want of dialectical skill are unable to define the nature of rhetoric, and consequently

suppose that they have found the art in the preliminary conditions of it, and when these have been taught by

them to others, fancy that the whole art of rhetoric has been taught by them; but as to using the several

instruments of the art effectively, or making the composition a whole,an application of it such as this is

PHAEDRUS: I quite admit, Socrates, that the art of rhetoric which these men teach and of which they write

is such as you describethere I agree with you. But I still want to know where and how the true art of

SOCRATES: The perfection which is required of the finished orator is, or rather must be, like the perfection

of anything else; partly given by nature, but may also be assisted by art. If you have the natural power and

add to it knowledge and practice, you will be a distinguished speaker; if you fall short in either of these, you

will be to that extent defective. But the art, as far as there is an art, of rhetoric does not lie in the direction of

SOCRATES: I conceive Pericles to have been the most accomplished of rhetoricians.

SOCRATES: All the great arts require discussion and high speculation about the truths of nature; hence

come loftiness of thought and completeness of execution. And this, as I conceive, was the quality which, in

addition to his natural gifts, Pericles acquired from his intercourse with Anaxagoras whom he happened to

know. He was thus imbued with the higher philosophy, and attained the knowledge of Mind and the negative

of Mind, which were favourite themes of Anaxagoras, and applied what suited his purpose to the art of

SOCRATES: Why, because medicine has to define the nature of the body and rhetoric of the soulif we

would proceed, not empirically but scientifically, in the one case to impart health and strength by giving

medicine and food, in the other to implant the conviction or virtue which you desire, by the right application

SOCRATES: And do you think that you can know the nature of the soul intelligently without knowing the

PHAEDRUS: Hippocrates the Asclepiad says that the nature even of the body can only be understood as a

SOCRATES: Yes, friend, and he was right:still, we ought not to be content with the name of Hippocrates,

but to examine and see whether his argument agrees with his conception of nature.

SOCRATES: Then consider what truth as well as Hippocrates says about this or about any other nature.

Ought we not to consider first whether that which we wish to learn and to teach is a simple or multiform

thing, and if simple, then to enquire what power it has of acting or being acted upon in relation to other

things, and if multiform, then to number the forms; and see first in the case of one of them, and then in the

case of all of them, what is that power of acting or being acted upon which makes each and all of them to be

SOCRATES: The method which proceeds without analysis is like the groping of a blind man. Yet, surely, he

who is an artist ought not to admit of a comparison with the blind, or deaf. The rhetorician, who teaches his

pupil to speak scientifically, will particularly set forth the nature of that being to which he addresses his

SOCRATES: His whole effort is directed to the soul; for in that he seeks to produce conviction.

SOCRATES: Then clearly, Thrasymachus or any one else who teaches rhetoric in earnest will give an exact

description of the nature of the soul; which will enable us to see whether she be single and same, or, like the

SOCRATES: He will explain, secondly, the mode in which she acts or is acted upon.

SOCRATES: Thirdly, having classified men and speeches, and their kinds and affections, and adapted them

to one another, he will tell the reasons of his arrangement, and show why one soul is persuaded by a

SOCRATES: Yes, that is the true and only way in which any subject can be set forth or treated by rules of

art, whether in speaking or writing. But the writers of the present day, at whose feet you have sat, craftily

conceal the nature of the soul which they know quite well. Nor, until they adopt our method of reading and

SOCRATES: I cannot give you the exact details; but I should like to tell you generally, as far as is in my

SOCRATES: Oratory is the art of enchanting the soul, and therefore he who would be an orator has to learn

the differences of human soulsthey are so many and of such a nature, and from them come the differences

between man and man. Having proceeded thus far in his analysis, he will next divide speeches into their

different classes:'Such and such persons,' he will say, are affected by this or that kind of speech in this or

that way,' and he will tell you why. The pupil must have a good theoretical notion of them first, and then he

must have experience of them in actual life, and be able to follow them with all his senses about him, or he

will never get beyond the precepts of his masters. But when he understands what persons are persuaded by

what arguments, and sees the person about whom he was speaking in the abstract actually before him, and

knows that it is he, and can say to himself, 'This is the man or this is the character who ought to have a certain

argument applied to him in order to convince him of a certain opinion;'he who knows all this, and knows

also when he should speak and when he should refrain, and when he should use pithy sayings, pathetic

appeals, sensational effects, and all the other modes of speech which he has learned;when, I say, he knows

the times and seasons of all these things, then, and not till then, he is a perfect master of his art; but if he fail

in any of these points, whether in speaking or teaching or writing them, and yet declares that he speaks by

rules of art, he who says 'I don't believe you' has the better of him. Well, the teacher will say, is this, Phaedrus

and Socrates, your account of the socalled art of rhetoric, or am I to look for another?

PHAEDRUS: He must take this, Socrates, for there is no possibility of another, and yet the creation of such

SOCRATES: Very true; and therefore let us consider this matter in every light, and see whether we cannot

find a shorter and easier road; there is no use in taking a long rough roundabout way if there be a shorter and

easier one. And I wish that you would try and remember whether you have heard from Lysias or any one else

PHAEDRUS: If trying would avail, then I might; but at the moment I can think of nothing.

SOCRATES: He will argue that there is no use in putting a solemn face on these matters, or in going round

and round, until you arrive at first principles; for, as I said at first, when the question is of justice and good, or

is a question in which men are concerned who are just and good, either by nature or habit, he who would be a

skilful rhetorician has no need of truthfor that in courts of law men literally care nothing about truth, but

only about conviction: and this is based on probability, to which he who would be a skilful orator should

therefore give his whole attention. And they say also that there are cases in which the actual facts, if they are

improbable, ought to be withheld, and only the probabilities should be told either in accusation or defence,

and that always in speaking, the orator should keep probability in view, and say goodbye to the truth. And

PHAEDRUS: That is what the professors of rhetoric do actually say, Socrates. I have not forgotten that we

have quite briefly touched upon this matter already; with them the point is allimportant.

SOCRATES: I dare say that you are familiar with Tisias. Does he not define probability to be that which the

SOCRATES: I believe that he has a clever and ingenious case of this sort: He supposes a feeble and

valiant man to have assaulted a strong and cowardly one, and to have robbed him of his coat or of something

or other; he is brought into court, and then Tisias says that both parties should tell lies: the coward should say

that he was assaulted by more men than one; the other should prove that they were alone, and should argue

thus: 'How could a weak man like me have assaulted a strong man like him?' The complainant will not like to

confess his own cowardice, and will therefore invent some other lie which his adversary will thus gain an

opportunity of refuting. And there are other devices of the same kind which have a place in the system. Am I

SOCRATES: Bless me, what a wonderfully mysterious art is this which Tisias or some other gentleman, in

whatever name or country he rejoices, has discovered. Shall we say a word to him or not?

SOCRATES: Let us tell him that, before he appeared, you and I were saying that the probability of which he

speaks was engendered in the minds of the many by the likeness of the truth, and we had just been affirming

that he who knew the truth would always know best how to discover the resemblances of the truth. If he has

anything else to say about the art of speaking we should like to hear him; but if not, we are satisfied with our

own view, that unless a man estimates the various characters of his hearers and is able to divide all things into

classes and to comprehend them under single ideas, he will never be a skilful rhetorician even within the

limits of human power. And this skill he will not attain without a great deal of trouble, which a good man

ought to undergo, not for the sake of speaking and acting before men, but in order that he may be able to say

what is acceptable to God and always to act acceptably to Him as far as in him lies; for there is a saying of

wiser men than ourselves, that a man of sense should not try to please his fellowservants (at least this should

not be his first object) but his good and noble masters; and therefore if the way is long and circuitous, marvel

not at this, for, where the end is great, there we may take the longer road, but not for lesser ends such as

yours. Truly, the argument may say, Tisias, that if you do not mind going so far, rhetoric has a fair beginning

SOCRATES: Enough appears to have been said by us of a true and false art of speaking.

SOCRATES: But there is something yet to be said of propriety and impropriety of writing.

SOCRATES: Do you know how you can speak or act about rhetoric in a manner which will be acceptable to

SOCRATES: I have heard a tradition of the ancients, whether true or not they only know; although if we had

found the truth ourselves, do you think that we should care much about the opinions of men?

PHAEDRUS: Your question needs no answer; but I wish that you would tell me what you say that you have

SOCRATES: At the Egyptian city of Naucratis, there was a famous old god, whose name was Theuth; the

bird which is called the Ibis is sacred to him, and he was the inventor of many arts, such as arithmetic and

calculation and geometry and astronomy and draughts and dice, but his great discovery was the use of letters.

Now in those days the god Thamus was the king of the whole country of Egypt; and he dwelt in that great

city of Upper Egypt which the Hellenes call Egyptian Thebes, and the god himself is called by them Ammon.

To him came Theuth and showed his inventions, desiring that the other Egyptians might be allowed to have

the benefit of them; he enumerated them, and Thamus enquired about their several uses, and praised some of

them and censured others, as he approved or disapproved of them. It would take a long time to repeat all that

Thamus said to Theuth in praise or blame of the various arts. But when they came to letters, This, said

Theuth, will make the Egyptians wiser and give them better memories; it is a specific both for the memory

and for the wit. Thamus replied: O most ingenious Theuth, the parent or inventor of an art is not always the

best judge of the utility or inutility of his own inventions to the users of them. And in this instance, you who

are the father of letters, from a paternal love of your own children have been led to attribute to them a quality

which they cannot have; for this discovery of yours will create forgetfulness in the learners' souls, because

they will not use their memories; they will trust to the external written characters and not remember of

themselves. The specific which you have discovered is an aid not to memory, but to reminiscence, and you

give your disciples not truth, but only the semblance of truth; they will be hearers of many things and will

have learned nothing; they will appear to be omniscient and will generally know nothing; they will be

PHAEDRUS: Yes, Socrates, you can easily invent tales of Egypt, or of any other country.

SOCRATES: There was a tradition in the temple of Dodona that oaks first gave prophetic utterances. The

men of old, unlike in their simplicity to young philosophy, deemed that if they heard the truth even from 'oak

or rock,' it was enough for them; whereas you seem to consider not whether a thing is or is not true, but who

PHAEDRUS: I acknowledge the justice of your rebuke; and I think that the Theban is right in his view about

SOCRATES: He would be a very simple person, and quite a stranger to the oracles of Thamus or Ammon,

who should leave in writing or receive in writing any art under the idea that the written word would be

intelligible or certain; or who deemed that writing was at all better than knowledge and recollection of the

SOCRATES: I cannot help feeling, Phaedrus, that writing is unfortunately like painting; for the creations of

the painter have the attitude of life, and yet if you ask them a question they preserve a solemn silence. And

the same may be said of speeches. You would imagine that they had intelligence, but if you want to know

anything and put a question to one of them, the speaker always gives one unvarying answer. And when they

have been once written down they are tumbled about anywhere among those who may or may not understand

them, and know not to whom they should reply, to whom not: and, if they are maltreated or abused, they have

SOCRATES: Is there not another kind of word or speech far better than this, and having far greater

SOCRATES: I mean an intelligent word graven in the soul of the learner, which can defend itself, and

PHAEDRUS: You mean the living word of knowledge which has a soul, and of which the written word is

SOCRATES: Yes, of course that is what I mean. And now may I be allowed to ask you a question: Would a

husbandman, who is a man of sense, take the seeds, which he values and which he wishes to bear fruit, and in

sober seriousness plant them during the heat of summer, in some garden of Adonis, that he may rejoice when

he sees them in eight days appearing in beauty? at least he would do so, if at all, only for the sake of

amusement and pastime. But when he is in earnest he sows in fitting soil, and practises husbandry, and is

PHAEDRUS: Yes, Socrates, that will be his way when he is in earnest; he will do the other, as you say, only

SOCRATES: And can we suppose that he who knows the just and good and honourable has less

SOCRATES: Then he will not seriously incline to 'write' his thoughts 'in water' with pen and ink, sowing

words which can neither speak for themselves nor teach the truth adequately to others?

SOCRATES: No, that is not likelyin the garden of letters he will sow and plant, but only for the sake of

recreation and amusement; he will write them down as memorials to be treasured against the forgetfulness of

old age, by himself, or by any other old man who is treading the same path. He will rejoice in beholding their

tender growth; and while others are refreshing their souls with banqueting and the like, this will be the

PHAEDRUS: A pastime, Socrates, as noble as the other is ignoble, the pastime of a man who can be amused

SOCRATES: True, Phaedrus. But nobler far is the serious pursuit of the dialectician, who, finding a

congenial soul, by the help of science sows and plants therein words which are able to help themselves and

him who planted them, and are not unfruitful, but have in them a seed which others brought up in different

soils render immortal, making the possessors of it happy to the utmost extent of human happiness.

SOCRATES: And now, Phaedrus, having agreed upon the premises we may decide about the conclusion.

SOCRATES: About Lysias, whom we censured, and his art of writing, and his discourses, and the rhetorical

skill or want of skill which was shown in themthese are the questions which we sought to determine, and

they brought us to this point. And I think that we are now pretty well informed about the nature of art and its

PHAEDRUS: Yes, I think with you; but I wish that you would repeat what was said.

SOCRATES: Until a man knows the truth of the several particulars of which he is writing or speaking, and

is able to define them as they are, and having defined them again to divide them until they can be no longer

divided, and until in like manner he is able to discern the nature of the soul, and discover the different modes

of discourse which are adapted to different natures, and to arrange and dispose them in such a way that the

simple form of speech may be addressed to the simpler nature, and the complex and composite to the more

complex natureuntil he has accomplished all this, he will be unable to handle arguments according to rules

of art, as far as their nature allows them to be subjected to art, either for the purpose of teaching or

SOCRATES: Secondly, as to the censure which was passed on the speaking or writing of discourses, and

how they might be rightly or wrongly censured did not our previous argument show?

SOCRATES: That whether Lysias or any other writer that ever was or will be, whether private man or

statesman, proposes laws and so becomes the author of a political treatise, fancying that there is any great

certainty and clearness in his performance, the fact of his so writing is only a disgrace to him, whatever men

may say. For not to know the nature of justice and injustice, and good and evil, and not to be able to

distinguish the dream from the reality, cannot in truth be otherwise than disgraceful to him, even though he

SOCRATES: But he who thinks that in the written word there is necessarily much which is not serious, and

that neither poetry nor prose, spoken or written, is of any great value, if, like the compositions of the

rhapsodes, they are only recited in order to be believed, and not with any view to criticism or instruction; and

who thinks that even the best of writings are but a reminiscence of what we know, and that only in principles

of justice and goodness and nobility taught and communicated orally for the sake of instruction and graven in

the soul, which is the true way of writing, is there clearness and perfection and seriousness, and that such

principles are a man's own and his legitimate offspring;being, in the first place, the word which he finds in

his own bosom; secondly, the brethren and descendants and relations of his idea which have been duly

implanted by him in the souls of others;and who cares for them and no othersthis is the right sort of

SOCRATES: And now the play is played out; and of rhetoric enough. Go and tell Lysias that to the fountain

and school of the Nymphs we went down, and were bidden by them to convey a message to him and to other

composers of speechesto Homer and other writers of poems, whether set to music or not; and to Solon and

others who have composed writings in the form of political discourses which they would term lawsto all of

them we are to say that if their compositions are based on knowledge of the truth, and they can defend or

prove them, when they are put to the test, by spoken arguments, which leave their writings poor in

comparison of them, then they are to be called, not only poets, orators, legislators, but are worthy of a higher

SOCRATES: Wise, I may not call them; for that is a great name which belongs to God alone,lovers of

SOCRATES: And he who cannot rise above his own compilations and compositions, which he has been

long patching and piecing, adding some and taking away some, may be justly called poet or speechmaker or

PHAEDRUS: Isocrates the fair:What message will you send to him, and how shall we describe him?

SOCRATES: Isocrates is still young, Phaedrus; but I am willing to hazard a prophecy concerning him.

SOCRATES: I think that he has a genius which soars above the orations of Lysias, and that his character is

cast in a finer mould. My impression of him is that he will marvellously improve as he grows older, and that

all former rhetoricians will be as children in comparison of him. And I believe that he will not be satisfied

with rhetoric, but that there is in him a divine inspiration which will lead him to things higher still. For he has

an element of philosophy in his nature. This is the message of the gods dwelling in this place, and which I

will myself deliver to Isocrates, who is my delight; and do you give the other to Lysias, who is yours.

SOCRATES: Beloved Pan, and all ye other gods who haunt this place, give me beauty in the inward soul;

and may the outward and inward man be at one. May I reckon the wise to be the wealthy, and may I have

such a quantity of gold as a temperate man and he only can bear and carry.Anything more? The prayer, I