A Vanished Arcadia ............................................................................................................................................1

R. B. Cunninghame Graham ....................................................................................................................1

PREFACE ...............................................................................................................................................1

CHAPTER I .............................................................................................................................................5

CHAPTER II ..........................................................................................................................................26

CHAPTER III........................................................................................................................................42

CHAPTER IV........................................................................................................................................49

CHAPTER V.........................................................................................................................................59

CHAPTER VI........................................................................................................................................78

CHAPTER VII .......................................................................................................................................90

CHAPTER VIII.....................................................................................................................................97

CHAPTER IX......................................................................................................................................107

CHAPTER X.......................................................................................................................................118

CHAPTER XI......................................................................................................................................128

HISTORICUS NASCITUR, non fit. I am painfully aware that neither my calling nor election in this matter

are the least sure. Certain it is that in youth, when alone the historian or the horseman may be formed, I did

little to fit myself for writing history. Wandering about the countries of which now I treat, I had almost as

little object in my travels as a Gaucho of the outside 'camps'. I never took a note on any subject under heaven,

nor kept a diary, by means of which, my youth departed and the countries I once knew so well

transmogrified, I could, sitting beside the fire, read and enjoy the sadness of revisiting, in my mind's eye,

scenes that I now remember indistinctly as in a dream. I take it that he who keeps a journal of his doings,

setting down day by day all that he does, with dates and names of places, their longitude and latitude duly

recorded, makes for himself a meal of bittersweet; and that your truest dulcamara is to read with glasses the

faded notes jotted down hurriedly in rain, in sun, in wind, in camps, by flooded rivers, and in the long and

listless hours of heatin fact, to see again your life, as it were, acted for you in some camera obscura, with

the chief actor changed. But diaries, unless they be mere records of bare facts, must of necessity, as in their

nature they are autobiographical, be false guides; so that, perhaps, I in my carelessness was not quite so

unwise as I have often thought myself. Although I made no notes of anything, caring most chiefly for the

condition of my horse, yet when I think on them, pampa and cordillera, virgin forest, the 'passes' of the rivers,

approached by sandy paths, bordered by flowering and sweetsmelling trees, and most of all the deserted

Jesuit Missions, half buried by the vigorous vegetation, and peopled but by a few whiteclad Indians, rise up

so clearly that, without the smallest faculty for dealing with that which I have undertaken, I am forced to

write. Flowers, scents, the herds of horses, the ostriches, and the whole charm of that New World which those

who saw it even a quarter of a century ago saw little altered from the remotest times, have remained clear and

sharp, and will remain so with me to the end. So to the readers (if I chance to have them) of this short attempt

to give some faint idea of the great Christian Commonwealth of the Jesuit Missions between the Paran� and

Uruguay, I now address myself. He who attacks a subject quite fallen out of date, and still not old enough to

give a man authority to speak upon it without the fear of contradiction, runs grave risk.

Gentle, indulgent reader, if so be that you exist in these the days of universal knowledge and selfsufficient

criticism, I do not ask for your indulgence for the many errors which no doubt have slipped into this work.

These, if you care to take the trouble, you can verify, and hold me up to shame. What I do crave is that you

will approach the subject with an open mind. Your Jesuit is, as we know, the most tremendous wildfowl that

the world has known. 'La guardia nera' of the Pope, the order which has wrought so much destruction, the

inventors of 'Ciencia media', [1] cradle from which has issued forth Molina, Suarez, and all those villains

who, in the days in which the doctrine was unfashionable, decried mere faith, and took their stand on

workswho in this land of preconceived opinion can spare it a good word? But, notwithstanding, even a

Jansenist, if such be left, must yet admit the claim of Francis Xavier as a true, humble saint, and if the

sourfaced sectary of Port Royale should refuse, all men of letters must perforce revere the writer of the

But into the whole question of the Jesuits I cannot enter, as it entails command of far more foot and halffoot

words than I can muster up. Still, in America, and most of all in Paraguay, I hope to show the Order did much

good, and worked amongst the Indians like apostles, receiving an apostle's true reward of calumny, of stripes,

of blows, and journeying hungry, athirst, on foot, in perils oft, from the great cataract of the Paran� to the

recesses of the Tarumensian woods. Little enough I personally care for the political aspect of their

commonwealth, or how it acted on the Spanish settlements; of whether or not it turned out profitable to the

Court of Spain, or if the crimes and charges of ambition laid to the Jesuits' account were false or true. My

only interest in the matter is how the Jesuits' rule acted upon the Indians themselves, and if it made them

happymore happy or less happy than those Indians who were directly ruled from Spain, or through the

Spanish Governors of the viceroyalties. For theories of advancement, and as to whether certain arbitrary ideas

of the rights of man, evolved in general by those who in their persons and their lives are the negation of all

rights, I give a ficoyes, your fig of Spaincaring as little as did ancient Pistol for 'palabras', and holding

that the best right that a man can have is to be happy after the way that pleases him the most. And that the

Jesuits rendered the Indians happy is certain, though to those men who fudge a theory of mankind, thinking

that everyone is forged upon their anvil, or run out of their own mould, after the fashion of a tallow dip (a

theory which, indeed, the sameness of mankind renders at times not quite untenable), it seems absurd because

the progress of the world has gone on other lineslines which prolonged indefinitely would never meet

those which the Jesuits drew. All that I know is I myself, in the deserted missions, fiveandtwenty years ago

often have met old men who spoke regretfully of Jesuit times, who cherished all the customs left by the

company, and though they spoke at secondhand, repeating but the stories they had heard in youth, kept the

illusion that the missions in the Jesuits' time had been a paradise. Into the matter of the Jesuits' motives I do

not propose to enter, holding that the origin of motives is too deeply seated to be worth inquiry until one has

more information about the human mind than even modern 'scientists' seem able to impart. Yet it is certain

the Jesuits in Paraguay had faith fit to remove all mountains, as the brief stories of their lives, so often ending

with a rude fieldcross by the corner of some forest, and the inscription 'hic occissus est' survive to show.

Some mensuch is the complexity of human naturehave undergone trials and persecutions for base

motives, and it is open for anyone to say the Jesuits, as they were Jesuits, could do nothing good. Still, I

believe that Father Ruiz Montoyawhose story I have told, how falteringly, and with how little justice to his

greatness, none knows better than myselfwas a good manthat is, a man without ulterior motives, and

actuated but by his love to the poor Indians with whom he passed his life. Today, when no one can see good

in anything or anybody outside the somewhat beefy pale of the AngloSaxon race, I do not hope that such a

mere dabbler in the great mystery of history as I am myself will for an instant change one preconceived

opinion; for I am well aware that speeches based on facts are impotent in popular assemblies to change a

It is an article of AngloSaxon faith that all the Spanish colonies were maladministered, and all the Spanish

conquerors bloodthirsty butchers, whose sole delight was blood. This, too, from the members of a race who . .

.; but 'In the multitude of the greyhounds is the undoing of the hare.' Therefore, I ask those who imagine that

all Spaniards at the conquest of America were ruffians, to consider the career of Alvar Nu�ez, who also struts

through his brief chapter in the pages of my most imperfect book. Still, I admit men of the stamp of Alvar

Nu�ez are most rare, and were still rarer in the sixteenth century; and to find many of the Ruiz Montoya

brand, Diogenes would have needed a lantern fitted with electric light. In the great controversy which

engaged the pens of many of the best writers of the world last century, after the Jesuits were expelled from

Spain and her colonial possessions (then almost half the world), it will be found that amongst all the mud so

freely flung about, the insults given and received, hardly anyone but a few exJesuits had any harm to say of

the doings of the Order during its long rule in Paraguay. None of the Jesuits were ever tried; no crimes were

charged against them; even the reasons for their expulsion were never given to the world at large. Certain it is

that but a few years after their final exit from the missions between the Uruguay and Paran� all was

confusion. In twenty years most of the missions were deserted, and before thirty years had passed no vestige

The semicommunism which the Jesuits had introduced was swept away, and the keen light of free and

vivifying competition (which beats so fiercely upon the bagman's paradise of the economists) reigned in its

stead. The revenues declined, [3] all was corruption, and, as the Governor, Don Juan Jos� Vertiz, writes to the

Viceroy, [4] the secular priests sent by the Government were brawlers, drunkards, and strikers, carrying arms

beneath their cloaks; that robbery was rife; and that the Indians daily deserted and returned by hundreds to the

All the reports of riches amassed in Paraguay by the Jesuits, after the expulsion of their order proved to be

untrue; nothing of any consequence was found in any of the towns, although the Jesuits had had no warning

of their expulsion, and had no time for preparation or for concealment of their gold. Although they stood to

the Indians almost in the light of gods, and had control of an armed force larger by far than any which the

temporal power could have disposed of, they did not resist, but silently departed from the rich territories

Rightly or wrongly, but according to their lights, they strove to teach the Indian population all the best part of

the European progress of the times in which they lived, shielding them sedulously from all contact with

commercialism, and standing between them and the Spanish settlers, who would have treated them as slaves.

These were their crimes. For their ambitions, who shall search the human heart, or say what their superiors in

Europe may, or perhaps may not, have had in view? When all is said and done, and now their work is over,

and all they worked for lost (as happens usually with the efforts of disinterested men), what crime so terrible

can men commit as to stand up for near upon two centuries against that slavery which disgraced every

American possession of the Spanish [5] crown? Nothing is bad enough for those who dare to speak the truth,

and those who put their theories into practice are a disgrace to progressive and adequately taxed communities.

Nearly two hundred years they strove, and now their territories, once so populous and so well cultivated,

remain, if not a desert, yet delivered up to that fiercegrowing, subtropical American plant life which seems

as if it fights with man for the possession of the land in which it grows. For a brief period those Guaran�s

gathered together in the missions, ruled over by their priests, treated like grownup children, yet with a

kindness which attached them to their rulers, enjoyed a halfArcadian, halfmonastic life, reaching to just so

much of what the world calls civilization as they could profit by and use with pleasure to themselves. A

commonwealth where money was unknown to the majority of the citizens, a curious experiment by

selfdevoted men, a sort of dropping down a divingbell in the flood of progress to keep alive a population

which would otherwise soon have been suffocated in its muddy waves, was doomed to failure by the very

nature of mankind. Foredoomed to failure, it has disappeared, leaving nothing of a like nature now upon the

earth. The Indians, too, have vanished, gone to that limbo which no doubt is fitted for them. Gentle, indulgent

reader, if you read this book, doubt not an instant that everything that happens happens for the best; doubt

not, for in so doing you would doubt of all you seeour life, our progress, and your own infallibility, which

at all hazards must be kept inviolate. Therefore in my imperfect sketch I have not dwelt entirely on the strict

concatenation (after the Bradshaw fashion) of the hard facts of the history of the Jesuits. I have not set down

too many dates, for the setting down of dates in much profusion is, after all, an ad captandum appeal to the

Wandering along the bypaths of the forests which fringe the mission towns, and set them, so to speak, in the

hard tropical enamel of green foliage, on which time has no lien, and but the arts of alldestroying man are

able to deface, I may have chanced upon some petty detail which may serve to pass an hour away.

A treatise of a forgotten subject by a labourer unskilled, and who, moreover, by his very task challenges

competition with those who have written on the theme, with better knowledge, and perhaps less sympathy; a

pother about some few discredited and unremembered priests; details about halfsavages, who 'quoi! ne

portaient pas des haults de chausses'; the recollections of long silent rides through forest paths, ablaze with

flowers, and across which the tropic birds darted like atoms cut adrift from the apocalypse; a hotchpotch,

salmagundi, olla podrida, or seapie of sweet and bitter, with perhaps the bitter ruling most, as is the way

when we unpack our reminiscencesyes, gentle and indulgent reader, that's the humour of it.

[1] The doctrine of the 'Ciencia Media' occurs in the celebrated 'Concordia grati� et liberi arbitrii', by Luis de

Molina (1588). The concilium de Auxiliis was held to determine whether or not concordia was possible

between freewill and grace. As the Jesuits stuck by Molina and his doctrines in despite of councils and of

popes, the common saying arose in Spain: 'Pasteles en la pasteleria y ciencia media en la Compa�ia.'

[3] Dean Funes, 'Ensayo de la Historia Civil del Paraguay', etc., Buenos Aires, 1816.

[4] Idem. The letter is dated 1771 and the Jesuits were expelled in 1767. As the writer of the letter was on the

spot in an official position, and nominated by the very Viceroy who had been the expeller of the Jesuits, his

testimony would seem to be as valuable as that of the ablest theorist on government, Catholic or Protestant,

[5] This, of course, applies to the possessions of all European States in America equally with Spain.

Early history State of the country Indian races Characteristics of the different tribes

Dobrizhoffer's book Various expeditions Sebastian Cabot Don Pedro de Mendoza Alvar Nu�ez

His expedition and its results Other leaders and preachers Founding of the first mission of the

WITH THE exception of the French Revolution, perhaps no event caused so much general controversy at the

end of the eighteenth century as the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain and Portugal and their colonial

possessions. As no definite charges were ever brought, at least in Spain, against the members of the Company

of Jesus (King Charles III. having kept the reasons ocultas y reservadas and the proofs privilegiadas),

curiosity is to some extent not satisfied as to the real reason of their expulsion from the Spanish possessions

It is almost impossible to understand nowadays the feelings which possessed the average man in regard to the

Jesuits from the middle of the last century till a relatively short time ago. All the really great work done by

the Society of Jesus seemed to have been forgotten, and every vulgar fable which it was possible to invent to

their prejudice found ready acceptance upon every side. Nothing was too absurd to be believed. From the

calumnies of the Jansenists to the follies of Eug�ne Sue the mass of accusation, invective, and innuendo kept

on increasing in intensity. Indiscriminate abuse and unreasoning hatred, mixed with fear, seem to have

possessed all minds. Even Pascal confesses (in a postscript to the ninth Provincial Letter) that 'after having

written my letter I read the works of Fathers Barry and Binet.' If such a man as Pascal could be so grossly

unfair as to write a criticism on works which he had not read, what can be expected from the nonjudicial

From Japan to the interior of Bolivia there is scarcely a country in which the Jesuits have not laboured

assiduously, and in which they have not shed their blood freely without hope of reward, yet it would require

much time and a lengthy catalogue to enumerate the list of satirical and calumnious works which have

appeared against them in almost every language in Europe. Of these, perhaps the most celebrated is the

wellknown 'Monarquia de los Solipsos', [1] by Padre Melchior Inshoffer, an exJesuit, who describes the

company in the worst possible terms. It is interesting chiefly on account of the portraits of wellknown

people of the time (1615 to 1648), as Pope Clement VIII., Francisco Suarez, Claudio Aquaviva, and others,

veiled under easily distinguishable pseudonyms. The object of the writer, as the title indicates, is to show that

the Jesuits endeavoured to turn all to their own profit. In this, if it was the case, they do not seem to have been

greatly different from every other associated body of men, whether lay or clerical. The celebrated Spanish

proverb, 'Jesuita y se ahorca, cuenta le hace', meaning, Even if a Jesuit is hung he gets some good out of it,

may just as well be applied to members of other learned professions as to the Jesuits.

The world has rarely persecuted any body of men conspicuous by its poverty, or if it has done so has rarely

persecuted them for long. The Inquisition of Spain, violent against the wealthy Jews and comfortable

Moriscos, took little notice of the Gipsies; but, then, 'Pobre como cuerpo de Gitano' was and is a common

As in the case of the Templars, persecution only began against the Jesuits when it became worth while to

persecute them. Ignatius Loyola, Francisco Xavier, and Diego Lainez, as long as they confined themselves to

preaching and to teaching, were safe enough. Even the annals of theological strife, bloodthirsty and

discreditable to humanity as they are, contain few examples of persecutors such as Calvin or Torquemada, to

whom, ruthless as they were in their savage and narrow malignity and zeal for what they thought the truth, no

Of the Jesuits' intrigues, adventures, rise and fall in Europe, much may be said in attack or in extenuation; but

it is not the intention of the present work to deal with this aspect of the question. It was in Spanish America,

and especially in Paraguay and Bolivia, where the policy of the Company in regard to savage nations was

most fully developed, as it was only the Jesuits who ever succeeded in reclaiming any large number of the

Many excellent works in French, and the celebrated 'Christianismo Felice nel Paraguay' of the Abbate

Muratori in Italian, certainly exist. But neither Father Charlevoix, the French historian of the missions, nor

Muratori was ever in Paraguay, and both their books contain the faults and mistakes of men, however

excellent and well intentioned, writing of countries of which they were personally ignorant. Both give a good

account of the customs and regimen of the missions, but both seem to have believed too readily fabulous

accounts of the flora and fauna of Paraguay. [2] The fact of having listened too readily to a fable about an

unknown animal in no way detracts from the general veracity of an author of the beginning of the eighteenth

century, for in all other respects except natural history Charlevoix keeps within the bounds of probability,

though of course as a Jesuit he holds a brief for the doings of the Company in Paraguay. Muratori is more

rarely led into extravagances, but is concerned in the main with the religious side of the Jesuits, as the title of

Many other French writers, as Raynal, Montesquieu, and Voltaire, have treated of Paraguay under Jesuit rule,

but their writings are founded on hearsay evidence. A German, Father Dobrizhoffer, stands alone. [3] His

delightful 'History of the Abipones, an Equestrian People of Paraguay', is perhaps the most charming book

dealing with the subject. A simple and easy style, a keen habit of observation, long acquaintance with the

country, a zeal for the conversion of the infidel, not only to Christianity, but to a more comfortable mode of

life, to which he adds a faith sufficient to move the Cordillera of the Andes, but at the same time restricted by

a commonsense and veracity not always observable in religious writers, render Dobrizhoffer a personal

English is singularly barren in regard to the Jesuits in Paraguay. Father Falconer, an English Jesuit, has left a

curious and interesting book (printed at Hereford in 1774), but he treats exclusively of what is now the

province of Buenos Ayres, the Falkland Islands, and of Patagonia. As an Englishman and a Jesuit (a

somewhat rare combination in the eighteenth century), and as one who doubtless knew many of the

Paraguayan priests, his testimony would have been most important, especially as he was a man of great

information, much education, an intrepid traveller, and, moreover, only entered the Company of Jesus at a

It is in Spanish, or in Latin by Spanish authors, that the greater portion of the contemporary histories and

accounts are to be found. [4] Literatures, like other things, have their times of fashion. At one time a

knowledge of Spanish was as requisite as some tincture of French is at present, and almost as universal. Men

from Germany, England, and Holland who met in a foreign country communicated in that language. In the

early portion of the century Ticknor, Prescott, and Washington Irving rendered Spanish literature fashionable

Later the historical researches of Sir William Stirling Maxwell drew some attention to it. Today hardly any

literature of Europe is so little studied in England. Still leaving apart the purely literary treasures of the

language, it is in Spanish, and almost alone in Spanish, that the early history of America is to be found.

After the struggle for independence which finished about 1825, some interest was excited in the

SpanishAmerican countries, stimulated by the writings of Humboldt; but when it became apparent that on

the whole those countries could never be occupied by Northern Europeans, interest in them died out except

for purposes connected with the Stock Exchange. Yet there is a charm which attaches to them which attaches

to no other countries in the world. It was there that one of the greatest dramas, and certainly the greatest

adventure in which the human race has engaged, took place. What Africa has been for the last twenty years,

Spanish America was three hundred years ago, the difference being that, whereas modern adventure in Africa

goes on under full observation, and deals in the main with absolutely uncivilized peoples, the conquest of

South America was invested with all the charm of novelty, and brought the conquerors into contact with at

least two peoples almost as advanced in most of the arts of civilization as they were themselves.

When first Sebastian Cabot and Solis ascended the Paran�, they found that the Guaran�s of Paraguay had

extended in no instance to the western shore of either of those rivers. The western banks were inhabited then,

as now, by the wandering Indians of the still not entirely explored territory of the Gran Chaco. Chaco [5] is a

Quichua Indian word meaning 'hunting' or 'huntingground', and it is said that after the conquest of Peru the

Indian tribes which had been recently subjugated by the Incas took refuge in this huge domain of forest and

Be that as it may, the Chaco Indians of today, comprising the remnants of the Lulis, Tobas, Lenguas,

Mocobi�s, and others, are almost as savage as when first we hear of them in the pages of Alvar Nu�ez and

Hulderico Schmidel. These tribes the Jesuits on many occasions attempted to civilize, but almost entirely

without success, as the long record of the martyrdom of Jesuit missionaries in the Chaco proves, as well as

the gradual abandonment of their missions there, towards the second half of the eighteenth century.

Certain it is that at various places in the Chaco, in the quaint old maps the Jesuits have left us, one reads

'Mission de Santa Cruz de los Vilelas', 'Mission de la Concepcion de los Frontones', and others; but much

more frequently their maps are studded with crosses, and some such legend as 'Hic occisi sunt PP. Antonius

Salinus et Petrus Ortiz Zarate'. [6] It was only when the Jesuits encountered the more peaceful Guaran�s that

What was the nature of their success, how durable it was, what were the reasons which caused the expulsion

of the order from America, and especially from Paraguay, and what has been the result upon the remainder of

A long residence in the river Plate, together with two visits to Paraguay, in one of which I saw almost all the

remnants of the Paraguayan missions and a few of those situated in the province of Corrientes, and in the

Brazilian province of Rio Grande do Sul, have given me some personal acquaintance with the subject. [7]

The actual condition of the rich district of Misiones (Paraguay) at the time I visited it, shortly after the

conclusion of the great war between Paraguay and Brazil in 1870, does not enable me to speak with authority

on the condition of communities, the guiding spirits of which were expelled as far back as the year 1767. The

actual buildings of the missions, the churches in a dismantled state, have indeed survived; in many instances

the tall datepalms the Jesuits planted still wave over them. Generally the college was occupied by the Indian

Alcalde, who came out to meet the visitor on a horse if he possessed one, with as much silver about the bridle

and stirrups as he could afford, clothed in white, with a cloak of red baize, a large jipijapa hat, and silver

spurs buckled on his naked feet. If he had never left the mission, he talked with wonder and respect of the

times of the Jesuits, and at the oracion knelt down to pray wherever the sound of the angelus might catch him.

His children before bedtime knelt all in a row to ask his blessing. If he had been to Asuncion, he probably

remarked that the people under those accursed priests were naught but animals and slaves, and launched into

some disquisition he had heard in the solitary caf� which Asuncion then boasted. In the latter case, after much

of the rights of man and the duties of hospitality, he generally presented you with a heavy bill for Indian corn

and pindo [8] which your horse had eaten. In the former, usually he bade you go with God, and, if you spoke

Of Indians, hardly any were left to judge of, for in the villages in which, according to the reports furnished to

Bucareli, the Viceroy of Buenos Ayres at the time of the expulsion of the Jesuits, the population numbered in

the thirty towns of the missions one hundred and twenty thousand, [9] a population of at most twenty

thousand was to be found. On every side the powerful vegetation had covered up the fields. On ruined church

and chapel, and on broken tower, the lianas climbed as if on trees, creeping up the belfries, and throwing

great masses of scarlet and purple flowers out of the apertures where once were hung the bells. In the thick

jungles a few halfwild cattle still were to be found. The vast estancias, where once the Jesuits branded two

and three thousand calves a year, and from whence thousands of mules went forth to Chile and Bolivia, were

all neglected. Horses were scarce and poor, crops few and indifferent, and the plantations made by the Jesuits

of the tree (Ilex Paraguayensis) from which is made the yerba mat�, were all destroyed.

In the vast forests, stretching to the Salto de Guayr�, a few scattered tribes, known as Caaguas, roamed

through the thickets, or encamped upon the streams. In the thirty towns, once full of life and stir, in every one

of which there was a church, finer, as an old Spanish writer says, than any in Buenos Ayres, there was naught

but desolation and despair. The Indians either had returned into the woods, been killed in the ceaseless

revolutionary wars, or had been absorbed into the Gaucho populations of Corrientes, Rio Grande, Entre Rios,

It may be that all Indian races are destined to disappear if they come into contact with Europeans; certainly,

experience would seem to confirm the supposition. The policy of the Jesuits, however, was based on isolation

of their missions, and how this might have worked is matter at least for speculation. It was on account of the

isolation which they practised that it was possible for the extravagant calumnies which were circulated as to

their rule and riches to gain belief. It was on account of isolation that the first conflicts arose betwixt them

and the authorities, both clerical and lay. That the Jesuits were more highly esteemed than the other religious

orders in Spanish America in the seventeenth century, the saying current in those days, 'Los demas van � u�a,

los Jesuitas � una'i.e., The others get all they can, but the Jesuits have one aim (the conversion of the

It is not my purpose to deal with the probable reasons which induced their expulsion in Europe. Suffice it to

say that, whatever crimes or misdemeanours they were guilty of, they were never called on to answer before

any tribunals, and that in many instances they were treated, especially in Portugal, with great cruelty and

The burning, at the age of eighty, of the unfortunate Malagrida in Lisbon under the auspices of Pombal, for a

book which it seems improbable he could have written in prison at so great an age, and which, moreover, was

never brought into court, only supposed extracts from it being read, may serve as an example. In order clearly

to understand the position of the Jesuits in America, and especially in Paraguay and Bolivia, it is necessary to

The discovery of America opened up to Europe, and especially to Spain, opportunities for expansion of

national territory and individual advancement which no epoch, either before or since, has equalled. From a

cluster of small States, struggling for existence against a powerful enemy on their own soil, in a few years

Spain became the greatest empire of the world. The result was that a spirit of adventure and a desire to grow

rich speedily possessed all classes. In addition to this, every Spaniard in America during the first few years of

the conquest seemed to consider himself, to some extent, not only as a conqueror, but also as a missionary.

Now, missionaries and conquerors are men, on the whole, more imbued with their own importance and

sanctity, and less disposed to consider consequences, than almost any other classes of mankind. The

conjunction of the two in one disposed the conquistadores of America to imagine that, no matter how cruel or

outrageous their treatment of the Indians was, they atoned for all by the introduction of what they considered

the blessing of the knowledge of the true faith. It will be seen at once that, if one can determine with accuracy

which of the many 'faiths' preached about the world is actually the true faith, a man who is in possession of it

is acting properly in endeavouring to diffuse it. The meanest soldier in the various armies which left Spain to

Bernal Diaz del Castillo, who, as he himself relates, came to America at the age of eighteen, and therefore

could have had little previous opportunity of studying theology, and who, moreover, was unfitted to do so by

the want of knowledge of Latin, to which he himself confesses, yet at the end of his history of the conquest of

Mexico, one of the most interesting books ever written, has the following passage:

'But it is to be noted that, after God, it was we, the real conquerors, who discovered them [the Indians] and

conquered them; and from the first we took away their idols, and taught them our holy doctrine, and to us is

due the reward and credit of it all, before any other people, even though they be churchmen: for when the

beginning is good, the middle and ending is good, which the curious [i.e., attentive] reader may see in the

'And I will leave the matter, and tell the other benefits which, after God, by our agency, came to the natives

One would imagine, on reading the above extract, Bernal Diaz had never killed an Indian in his life, and that

he had sacrificed his prospects in coming to Mexico solely to introduce 'a Christian polity and justice'

amongst the inhabitants. Yet he was no hypocrite, but a stout sagacious soldier, even kindly, according to his

lights, and with a love of animals uncommon in a Spaniard, for he has preserved the names and qualities of

all the horses and mares which came over in the fleet from the Havana with Cortes. [11] The phrase, despues

de Dios (after God) occurs repeatedly in the writings of almost all the conquistadores of America. Having,

after God, conquered America, the first action of the conquerors was to set about making their fortunes. In

those countries which produced gold and silver, as Mexico and Peru, they worked the mines by the labour of

the Indians, the cruelties and hardships being so great that, in a letter of Philip II. to the Come de Chinchon,

the Viceroy of Peru, dated Madrid, April 30, 1639, written fifty years after the discovery, he says: 'These

Indians flee, become ill, and die, and have begun to diminish greatly in number, and they will be finished

In Paraguay there were no mines, but there were other methods of extracting money from the Indians. At the

first conquest Paraguay was not the little country bounded on the west by the Paraguay, on the south by the

Paran�, on the north by the Aquidaban, and on the east by Sierra of Mbaracavu, as it is at present. On the

contrary, it embraced almost all that immense territory known today as the Argentine Confederation, some

of the Republic of Uruguay, and a great portion of Brazil, embracing much of the provinces of Misiones, Rio

Grande do Sul, Paran�, and Matto Grosso, as well as Paraguay itself. How the little country, twelve hundred

miles from the sea, came to give its name to such an enormous territory, and to have the seat of government

at Asuncion, demands some explanation. Peru and Chile were discovered and occupied some time before the

eastern side of South America. Their riches naturally drew great attention to them; but the voyage, first to

Cartagena de Indias, and then across the isthmus, and the reembarkation again on the Pacific, were both

costly and arduous. It had been the ambition of all explorers to discover some river which would lead from

the Atlantic to the mines of Peru and what is now Bolivia, then known as Alta Peru. Of course, this might

have been achieved by ascending the Amazon, especially after the adventurous descent of it by Orellana, of

which Fray Gaspar de Carbajal has left so curious a description; but, whether on account of the distance or

In 1526 Sebastian Cabot left Spain with three small vessels and a caravel for the object of reaching the

Moluccas or Spice Islands. It was his purpose to reach them through the Straits of Magellan. Being compelled

by want of supplies to abandon his route, he entered a broad estuary, and ascended it under the impression

that he had discovered another channel to the Pacific. He soon found his mistake, and began to explore the

surrounding country. Fifteen years before, with the same object, Juan de Solis had entered the same estuary.

On the island of Martin Garcia he was killed by a Chan� Indian, and his expedition returned home. Hearing

that there was much silver at the headwaters, he had called it the Rio de la Plata. If we take the headwaters

of the river Plate to be situated in Bolivia, there certainly was much silver there; but Cabot was unaware that

the headwaters were above two thousand miles from the estuary, and he was not destined to come near

them. He did go as far as a point on the river Caracara, in what is now the province of Santa F�, and there he

built a fort which he named Espiritu Santo, the first Spanish settlement in that part of America. Whilst at

Espiritu Santo, several exploring parties were sent to scour the country. One of them, under a soldier of the

name of Cesar, never returned. Tradition, always eager to make up to history for its want of interest, asserted

that after marching for years they reached a city. Perhaps it was the mystic Trapalanda of which the Gauchos

used to discourse at night when seated round a fire of bones upon the pampa. Perhaps some other, for

enchanted cities and Eldorados were plentiful in those days in America, alternating with occasional empires,

as that of Puytita, near the Laguna de los Xarayes, Manoa, and the Ciudad de los Cesares, supposed to be

situated near Arauco in the Chilian Andes. However, one of the party actually returned after years, and

related his adventures to Ruy Diaz de Guzman, [12] the first historian of Paraguay. Thus it was that the

stream of adventurers was ever seeking for a channel to the mines of Peru from the Atlantic coast. Cabot

appears to have ascended the Paran� to the island of Apip�, and then, returning, entered the river Paraguay.

Having ascended past what is now Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay, Cabot encountered Indians from the

north who told him of the mines in Peru and in Bolivia, probably unaware that Cabot knew of them already.

At this point, encouraged by what he heard, he gave the name of Rio de la Plata to what had previously been

known either as La Mar Dulce or El Rio de Solis. Like most names which are wrongly given, it remained to

testify to the want of knowledge of the giver. Four years after, Cabot returned to Spain, having failed to

attract attention to his discoveries. In the face of the wealth which was pouring in from the Peruvian mines,

another expedition started for the river Plate. Its Generalfor in Spain the title was used indifferently by

land and seawas Don Pedro de Mendoza, a gentleman of Guadix in Almeria, and a member of the

Don Pedro had seen service in the Italian wars, and seems to have been a man of character and bravery, but

wanting in the discretion and the necessary tact essential in the founder of a colony. In 1534 the expedition

started, unfortunate almost from the first. In a 'certain island', as the historian of the expedition, Hulderico

Schmidel, a German or Flemish soldier, calls Rio Janeiro, a dispute occurred between Don Pedro and his

second in command, Juan de Osorio. At a courtmartial held upon Osorio, Don Pedro appears to have let fall

some remarks which Juan de Ayolas, the Alguazil Mayor (Chief Constable), seems to have taken up as an

order for instant execution. This he performed upon the spot, plunging his dagger repeatedly into Osorio, or,

as Hulderico Schmidel has it, 'sewing him up with cuts' (cosiendole a� pu�aladas). This murder or

executionfor who shall tell when murder finishes and its legal counterpart begins?rendered Don Pedro

very unpopular with all the fleet; for, as Schmidel has it in his history, [13] 'the soldiers loved Osorio.' To be

loved by the soldiers was the only chance a Spanish officer had in those times of holding his own. Both

Schmidel and Bernal Diaz del Castillo, who had both been common soldiers, and who, curiously, both wrote

histories, lose no occasion of vilifying officers who used the soldiers hardly. It is true that Bernal Diaz (who,

unlike Schmidel, was a man of genius) does so with some discretion, and always apparently with reason.

Schmidel, on the other hand, seems to have considered that any officer who interfered between the soldiers

and the Indians was a tyrant, and hence his denunciation of Alvar Nu�ez, under whom he served.

In 1535 the expedition entered the river Plate. Here Mendoza, with his usual want of judgment, pitched upon

what is now the site of Buenos Ayres as the spot on which to found his colony. It would be difficult to select

a more inconvenient place in which to found a town. The site of Buenos Ayres is almost level with the waters

of the river Plate, which there are shallowso shallow that large vessels could not approach nearer than ten

to fifteen miles. Without a harbour, the anchorage was exposed to the full fury of the southwest gales,

known as 'pamperos'. However, if the site was bad the air was good; at least, it seems so, for a captain of the

expedition exclaimed on landing, 'Que buenos aires son estos!' and hence the name. Here every sort of evil

chance came on the newborn colony. The Pampa Indians, whom the historian Schmidel seems to have only

known by their Guaran� name of Querandis, at first were friendly. After a little while they ceased to bring

provisions, and the General sent out an expedition to compel them under his brother, Don Diego de Mendoza.

It does not seem to have occurred to Don Pedro de Mendoza that, had the cacique of the Querandis landed in

Spain, no one would have brought him provisions for a single day without receiving payment. However, Don

Pedro [14] had come to America to introduce civilization and Christianity, and therefore, knowing, like

Bernal Diaz and the other conquerors, his own moral worth, was justly indignant that after a day or two the

Indians refused him more supplies. In the encounter which took place between the Spaniards and the Indians,

Don Diego de Mendoza was slain, and with him several others. Here for the first time we hear of the bolas, or

three stones united, like a Manxman's legs, with strips of hide, with which, as Hulderico Schmidel tells us,

the Indians caught the horses by the legs and threw them down. After this foretaste of European justice, the

Indians besieged the newlybuilt town and brought it to great straits, so much so that, after three men had

been hung for stealing a horse, in the morning it was discovered they had been cut down and eaten. In this

desperate state Don Pedro despatched Juan de Ayolas to get supplies. He, having obtained some maize from

the Timbu Indians, returned, leaving a hundred of his men in a little fort, called Corpus Christi, close to

Espiritu Santo, the fort which Cabot had constructed. The friendliness of the Timbus induced Don Pedro to

abandon Buenos Ayres and move to Corpus Christi. There he repaired with about five hundred men, all who

remained of the two thousand six hundred and thirty with which he sailed from Cadiz. The horses he

abandoned on the pampa; there they became the ancestors of the innumerable herds which at one time

overspread the Argentine Republic from the Chaco to Patagonia, and whose descendants to this day stock the

From Corpus Christi Juan de Ayolas was sent out to explore the river, and try to find the longsoughtfor

waterway to the Peruvian mines. He never reached Peru, and Corpus Christi never saw him return. Mendoza

waited a year, and then returned to Spain, leaving his garrison with provisions for a year, the bread [16] 'at

the rate of (� razon de) a pound a day, and if they wanted more to get it for themselves.' On the passage home

he died insane. The pious were of opinion that it was a judgment on him for the murder of Don Juan Osorio.

Before he embarked, Don Pedro had despatched a relative, Gonzalo de Mendoza, to Spain to bring provisions

and recruits. Gonzalo, having obtained provisions in Brazil, returned to Corpus Christi; thence in company

with Salazar de Espinosa he headed an expedition up the river in search of Juan de Ayolas, who had been

appointed successor to Don Pedro. With them went Domingo Martinez de Irala, a man destined to play a

The expedition went up the Paraguay to a place near Fort Olimpo (21 long., 58 lat.) about a hundred leagues

above Asuncion. Here they sent out exploring parties in all directions to seek Ayolas, but without success.

Irala remained with one hundred men at Fort Olimpo. Gonzalo de Mendoza on his return, being attracted by

the sight of a fine site for a town, landed, and on the fifteenth day of August, 1537, founded Asuncion. Here

the Spaniards first met the Guaran�s, who were destined in afteryears to be the converts of the Jesuits, and

'At the discovery of America,' says Felix de Azara in his 'Descripcion y Historia del Paraguay', 'the Guaran�s

were spread from the Guianas to the shores of the river Plate, and occupied all the islands of the Paran�

extending up to latitude 20� on the Paraguay, but without crossing either that river or the river Plate.' They

had also a few towns in the province of Chiquitos, and the nation of the Chiriguanas was an offshoot from

them. In Brazil they were soon all either rendered slaves or so crossed with the African negro that the pure

race has been almost entirely lost, though the language remains under the name of the Lingoa Geral, and

many words from it have been introduced into Portuguese spoken by the Brazilians, as capim, grass; caipira,

halfcaste, etc. In fact, so great is the number of these words, idioms, phrases, and terms of speech derived

from Guaran�, that Dr. Baptista de Almeida, in his preface to his grammar published at Rio Janeiro (1879),

computes that there are more words derived from Guaran� than even from Arabic in the Portuguese spoken in

Brazil. [17] The Guaran�s in Brazil were known either as Tupis, from the word tupy [18] savage, or

Jean de Lery, the wellknown Huguenot pastor and friend of Calvin, passed a year on the coast of Brazil

about 1558, having accompanied the expedition of the famous Villegagnau. In his book ('Histoire d'un

Voyage faict en la Terre du Brezil') he always refers to the Indians as Toupinaubaoults, and has preserved

many curious details of them before they had had much contact with Europeans. He appears to have had a

considerable acquaintance with the language, and has left some curious conversations en langage sauvage et

Fran�ais, in which he gives some grammatical rules. The language of conversation is almost identical with

that of Paraguay, though some words are used which are either peculiar to the Tupis or obsolete in Paraguay

today. His account of their customs tallies with that of the various Spanish writers and explorers who have

written on the subject. Tobacco, which seems to have been known under the name of 'nicotiane' to Lery, he

finds in Brazil under the name of 'petun', the same name by which it is called in Paraguay at present. He

believed that 'petun' and 'nicotiane' were two different plants, but the only reason he adduces for his belief is

that 'nicotiane' was brought in his time from Florida, which, as he observes, is more than a thousand leagues

from 'Nostre Terre du Brezil'. His experience of savages was the same as that of Azara, and almost all early

travellers, for he says: 'Nos Toupinambaoults re�oivent fort humainement les estrangers amis qui les vont

visiter.' [19] Lery, however, seemed to think that, in spite of their pacific inclination, it was not prudent to put

too much power in their hands, for he remarks: 'Au reste parcequ'ils chargeyent, et remplisseyent leurs

mousquets jusques au bout . . . nous leurs baillions moiti� (i.e., la poudre) de charbon broy�.' This may have

been a wise precaution, but he omits to state if the charbon broy� was bailli at the same price as good powder.

According to Azara, who takes his facts partly from the contemporary writersSchmidel, Alvar Nu�ez, Ruy

Diaz de Guzman, and Barco de la Centenerathe Guaran�s were divided into numerous tribes, as Imbeguas,

Caracaras, Tembues, Colistines, and many others. These tribes, though apparently of a common origin, never

united, but each lived separately under its own chief. Their towns were generally either close to or in the

middle of forests, or at the edge of rivers where there is wood. They all cultivated pumpkins, beans, maize,

mani (ground nuts), sweet potatoes, and mandioca; but they lived largely by the chase, and ate much wild

honey. Diaz in his 'Argentina' (lib. i., chap. i.) makes them cannibals. Azara believes this to have been untrue,

as no traditions of cannibalism were current amongst the Guaran�s in his time, i.e., in 17891801. Liberal as

Azara was, and careful observer of what he saw himself, I am disposed to believe the testimony of so many

eyewitnesses of the customs of the primitive Guaran�s, though none of them had the advantage enjoyed by

Azara of living three hundred years after the conquest. It may be, of course, that the powers of observation

were not so well developed in mankind in the beginning of the sixteenth as at the end of the eighteenth

century, but this point I leave to those whose business it is to prove that the human mind is in a progressive

state. However, Father Montoya, in his 'Conquista Espiritual del Paraguay', affirms most positively that they

Their general characteristics seem to have been much the same as those of other Indians of America. For

instance, they kept their hair and teeth to an extreme old age, their sight was keen, they seldom looked you in

the face whilst speaking, and their disposition was cold and reserved. The tone of their voices was low, so

low that, as Azara says: 'La voz nunca es gruesa ni sonora, y hablan siempre muy bajo, sin gritar aun para

quejarse si los matan; de manera que, si camina uno diez pasos delante, no le llama el que le necesita, sino

que va � alcanzarle.' This I have myself observed when travelling with Indians, even on horseback.

There was one characteristic of the Guaran�s in which they differed greatly from most of the Indian tribes in

their vicinity, as the Indians of the Chaco and the Pampas, for all historians alike agree that they were most

unwarlike. It is from this characteristic that the Jesuits were able to make such a complete conquest of them,

for, notwithstanding all their efforts, they never really succeeded in permanently establishing themselves

The name Guaran� is variously derived. Pedro de Angelis, in his 'Coleccion de Obras y Documentos', derives

it from gua, paint, and ni, sign of the plural, making the signification of the word 'painted ones' or 'painted

men'. Demersay, in his 'Histoire du Paraguay', [21] thinks it probable that the word is an alteration of the

word guaranai, i.e., numerous. Barco de la Centenera [22] ('Argentina', book i., canto i.) says the word means

'hornet', and was applied on account of their savageness. Be that as it may, it is certain that the Guaran�s did

not at the time of the conquest, and do not now, apply the word to themselves, except when talking Spanish

or to a foreigner. The word ab�, Indian or man, is how they speak of their people, and to the language they

In the same way the word 'Paraguay' is variously derived from a corruption of the word 'Payagu�' (the name

of an Indian tribe), and y, the Guaran� word for water, meaning river of the Payaguas. Others, again, derive it

from a Guaran� word meaning 'crown', and y, water, and make it the crowned river, either from the

palmtrees which crown its banks or the feather crowns which the Indians wore at the first conquest. Others,

again, derive it from a bird called paraqua (Ortolida paraqua). Again, Angelis, in his work 'Serie de los

Se�ores Gobernadores del Paraguay' (lib. ii., p. 187), derives it from Paragua, the name of a celebrated Indian

chief at the time of the conquest. What is certain is that y is the Guaran� for water, and this is something in a

derivation. Y is perhaps as hard to pronounce as the Gaelic luogh, a calf, the nasal gh in Arabic, or the Kaffir

clicks, having both a guttural and a nasal aspiration. [23] It is rarely attempted with success by foreigners,

even when long resident in the country. Though Paraguay was so completely the country of the Jesuits in

aftertimes, they were not the first religious Order to go there. Almost in every instance the ecclesiastics who

accompanied the first conquerors of America were Franciscans. The Jesuits are said to have sent two priests

to Bahia in Brazil ten years after their Order was founded, but both in Brazil and Paraguay the Franciscans

San Francisco Solano, the first ecclesiastic who rose to much note as a missionary, and who made his

celebrated journey through the Chaco in 158889 from Peru to Paraguay, was a Franciscan. [24] Thus, the

Franciscans had the honour of having the first American saint in their ranks. It is noteworthy, though, that he

was recalled from Paraguay by his superiors, who seem to have had no very exalted opinion of him.

Charlevoix remarks ('History of Paraguay') 'that it seems as if Providence, in granting him miraculous

powers, had forgotten the other necessary steps to make them effective.' That he really had these powers

seems strange, but San Francisco Solano narrates of himself that, in passing through the Chaco, he learned

the languages of several of the tribes, and 'preached to them in their own tongues of the birth, death, and

transfiguration of Christ, the mysteries of the Trinity, Transubstantiation, and Atonement; that he explained

to them the symbols of the Church, the Papal succession from St. Peter downwards, and that he catechized

the Indians by thousands, tens and hundreds of thousands, and that they came in tears and penitence to

Of course, today it is difficult to controvert these statements, even if inclined to do so; but the languages

spoken by the Chaco Indians are amongst the most difficult to learn of any spoken by the human race, so

much so that Father Dobrizhoffer, in his 'History of the Abipones', says 'that the sounds produced by the

Indians of the Chaco resembled nothing human, so do they sneeze, and stutter, and cough.' In such a language

He also says that several of the Jesuits who had laboured for years amongst the Indians could never master

their dialects, and when they preached the Indians received their words with shouts of laughter. This the good

priest attributed to the presence of a 'mocking devil' who possessed them. It may be that the mocking devil

was but a sense of humour, the possession of which, even amongst good Christians, has been known to give

But be this as it may, San Francisco de Solano remained two years at Asuncion, though whilst he lived there

his powers of speech (according to the Jesuits) seem to have been diminished, and he held no communication

with the Indians in their own languages. It may be that, like St. Paul, he preferred to speak, when not with

Indians, five words with his understanding rather than ten thousand in an unknown tongue.

At the time of the first conquest Paraguay was almost entirely peopled by the Guaran� race. [25] It does not

appear that their number was ever very great, perhaps not exceeding a million in the whole country. From the

writings of Montoya, Guevara, Lozano, and the other missionaries of the time, it is certain that they had

attained to no very high degree of civilization, though they were certainly more advanced than their

neighbours in the Gran Chaco. It is most probable that they had not a single stonebuilt town, or even a

house, or that such a thing existed south of New Granada, to the eastward of the Andes, for we may take the

description in Schmidel's 'History of the Casa del Gran Moxo' [26] either as a mistake or as a story which he

had heard from some Peruvian Indian of the palaces of the Incas. At any rate, no remains of stonebuilt

houses, still less of palaces, are known to have been found in Brazil or Paraguay.

Today all the Guaran�s who are still unconquered live in the impenetrable forests of the North of Paraguay

or in the Brazilian province of Matto Grosso. Their limits to the south extend to near the ruined missions of

Jesus and Trinidad. By preference, they seem to dwell about the sources of the Igatim�, an affluent of the

Paran�, and in the chain of mountains known either as San Jos� or Mbaracay�. The Paraguayans generally

refer to them as Monteses (dwellers in the woods), and sometimes as Caagua�s. They present almost the same

characteristics as they did at the discovery of the country, and wander in the woods as the Jesuits describe

them as doing three hundred years ago. Olive in colour, rather thickly set, of medium height, thin beards, and

generally little hair upon the body, their type has remained unchanged. The difference in stature amongst the

Guaran�s is less noticeable than amongst Europeans. Their language is poorer than the Guaran� spoken by the

Paraguayans, and the pronunciation both more nasal and guttural. Their numerals only extend to four, as was

Like their forefathers, they seldom unite in large numbers, and pay little honour or obedience to their chiefs,

who differ in no respect, either in arms, dress, or position, from the ordinary tribesmen.

In Brazil they are confined to the southern portion of the province of Sao Paulo, and are called by the

Brazilians Bugresthat is, slaves. A more unfitting name it would have been impossible to hit upon, as all

efforts to civilize them have proved abortive, and today they still range the forests, attacking small parties of

travellers, and burning isolated farmhouses. The Brazilians assert that they are cannibals, but little is known

positively as to this. What has altered them so entirely from the original Guaran�s of the time of the conquest,

who were so easily subdued, it is hard to conjecture. One thing is certain: that the example given them by the

Christian settlers has evidently not been such as to induce them to leave their wild life and enter into the

Diaz, in the 'Argentina', thinks the Caribs of the West Indies were Guaran�s, and the Jesuits often refer to

them under that name. [28] This point would be easily set at rest by examining if any Guaran� words remain

in the dialect of the Caribs of the Mosquito coast. As to their relative numbers at the time of the foundation of

the missions, it is most difficult to judge. At no one time does the population of the thirty towns seem to have

D'Orbigny in his 'L'Homme Am�ricain', estimates the Guaran�s of Brazil at one hundred and fifty thousand.

Humboldt cites two hundred and sixtynine thousand as the probable number of Indians of every kind in the

The Viscount de Itabayana (a Brazilian writer) fixes the number at two hundred and fifty thousand to three

Veloso de Oliveira puts it at eight hundred thousand; and later statisticians range between one million five

The numbers given of Indians by the Spanish conquerors are almost always grossly overstated, from the wish

they not unnaturally had to magnify the importance of their conquests and to enhance their exploits in the

Struck by the tractable character of the Guaran�s, Mendoza began to build a fort on August 15, 1537 (which is

the day of the Assumption), and the name he gave to his fort was Asuncion, which afterwards became the

Espinosa returned to Corpus Christi, and afterwards to Buenos Ayres, where a small force had still remained.

This force, tired of the ceaseless battles with the Querandis, or Pampa Indians, embarked for Asuncion.

Irala, after waiting for many months at Fort Olimpo, returned to Asuncion, where he found Ruiz de Galan

acting as Governor. A dispute at once arose between them, and Irala, after having been imprisoned, was

allowed to return to Fort Olimpo. Here he found the Payagu� Indians in rebellion, and in the battle which

ensued he is reported to have slain seven of them with his own hand. [29] He still maintained a fitful search

Galan returned to Buenos Ayres, and, stopping at Corpus Christi, took occasion to fall upon the friendly and

unsuspecting Timbu Indians and massacre a quantity of them. Why he did so is quite uncertain, for the

Timbues had been in the habit of supplying the fort of Corpus Christi with provisions; it may be that the

quality of the provisions was inferior, but neither Ruiz Diaz nor Schmidel informs us on the point. Galan,

after his 'victory', reembarked for Buenos Ayres, leaving Antonio de Mendoza in command with a hundred

One day, when about the half of the force was hunting, the Indians fell upon it and cut it off to the last man;

but for the opportune arrival of two vessels the fort would have been destroyed. However, many Spaniards

After this battle, in which Santiago [30] is said to have appeared on the top of the principal tower of the fort

dressed in white with a drawn sword in his hand, Galan and Espinosa returned to Asuncion, taking with them

the remainder of the inhabitants of Buenos Ayres. At Asuncion they found that Irala had again returned

without having discovered traces of Ayolas. Irala was elected Governor under a clause in the royal letters

patent which provided for the case of Ayolas not returning. His first act was to order the complete evacuation

of Buenos Ayres. An Italian vessel, which was going to Peru with colonists, having been driven into the river

Plate, united with the remains of the colonists at Buenos Ayres and proceeded to Asuncion.

Curiously enough, the remnants of several expeditions thus joined to found the first permanent city in the

territories of the river Plate; not at Buenos Ayres, but a thousand miles away in the interior of the country,

To preside over the heterogeneous elements of which Asuncion was composed, Domingo Martinez de Irala

was chosen. He was a Biscayan, a member of that ancient race which neither Romans nor Moors were ever

able to subdue. Nothing is known about his antecedents. Not improbably he was a son of one of the

innumerable small gentlemen with whom the Basque provinces used to swarm. Almost every house in the

little towns even today has its coat of arms over the door. Every inhabitant claimed to be a nobleman, and in

the reign of Charles V. they furnished many soldiers of repute in the wars of Europe and America.

The system of Irala was to conciliate rather than subdue the natives. Isolated from help of every kind, the

length of the voyage from Spain precluding all idea of speedy succour in a rebellion, it was the only course he

From the very first he encouraged the soldiers to marry women of the country, thus creating ties which bound

Two Franciscan friars [31] set about at once to learn the language and preach to the people. They also seem to

have endeavoured to reduce the Guaran� language to writing. So, from several circumstances, the early

history of Paraguay was very different from that of every other Spanish possession in America. To all the

others Spanish women seem to have gone in greater or in smaller numbers. To Paraguay, at the foundation of

So there a different state of society arose to that, for example, in Chile or in Mexico. In both those countries

few Spaniards ever married native women. Those who did so were either members of the highest classwho

sometimes, but rarely, married Indian women of position from motives of policyor else the lowest class of

Spaniards; in this case, after a generation, their children became practically Indians. In Paraguay it was quite

the contrary, and the grandchildren of Indian mothers and Spanish fathers were almost reckoned Spaniards,

Washburne, in his 'History of Paraguay' (p. 32, cap. i., vol. i.), points out the contrast between the effects of

the treatment meted out by Penn to the Indians in Pennsylvania and that by Irala in Paraguay. Where, he asks,

are the Indian tribes with whom the celebrated Quaker treated? In Paraguay, on the other hand, at least in the

time when Washburne was Minister from the United States to Lopez (from 1861 to 1868), the few remaining

Paraguayans of the upper class were almost all descended from the intermarriages of the followers of Irala

The tyranny of Lopez, and the effects of the disastrous war with Brazil and the Argentine Republic, have

almost extirpated every Paraguayan (of the old stock) with the least pretensions to white descent.

Ruiz Diaz de Guzman, speaking of the mixed race in Paraguay and Buenos Ayres, says:

'They are generally good soldiers, of great spirit and valour, expert in the use of arms, especially in that of the

musquet, so much so that, when they go on long journeys, they are accustomed to live on the game which

they kill with it. It is common for them to kill birds on the wing, and he is accounted unfit for a soldier who

cannot bring down a pigeon. They are such excellent horsemen that there is no one who is not able to tame

If the inhabitants of Paraguay and the river Plate of those days were good marksmen, it is more than can be

said of the Gauchos of the Argentine provinces and the Paraguayans of twenty years ago. Without military

training, so far from being able to bring down a pigeon on the wing, few could hit the trunk of a tree at fifty

paces. The usual method of shooting used to be to cram as much ammunition into the gun as the hand would

contain, and then, looking carefully away from the object aimed at, to close both eyes and pull the trigger.

Accuracy of aim was not so much considered as loudness of report. As regards their powers of riding, they

are still unchanged; and as to the virtue of their women, virtue is so largely a matter of convention that it is

generally wisest to leave such matters uncommented on, as it is so easy not to understand the conventions of

Whilst Irala was conciliating the Guaran�s in Paraguay, Charles V. had not forgotten that the new settlement

of Buenos Ayres had been abandoned. After much search, he selected Alvar Nu�ez Cabeza de Vaca to be the

new Governor; and, as Alvar Nu�ez was perhaps the most remarkable of all the Spanish conquistadores of

the New World, it may not be out of place to give some facts of his career, as his policy in regard to the

As he himself informs us in his Commentaries, [32] his 'father was that Pedro de Vera who won Canaria,' and

his mother 'Do�a Teresa Cabeza de Vaca, a noble lady of Jerez de la Frontera.' After the Spanish fashion of

In 1529 he sailed with the illfated expedition of Panfilo de Narvaez to Apalache in Florida, was

shipwrecked, tried to regain the Spanish settlements in boats, and then cast by a storm absolutely naked, and

with only three companions, upon an unknown land. Taken by the Indians, he was made a slave, then rose to

be a pedlar, then a doctor, and finally a chief, held sacred for his mysterious powers. At last he made his way

on foot into the territory of New Spain, not as a captive, but as the leader of several hundred Indians, who

followed him and did his bidding as if he had been born their chief. Rambling about for months, but always

followed by his Indians, he at length encountered a Spanish horsesoldier, and, accosting him, found he had

almost forgotten Spanish during his ten years' sojourn with the Indians. His first entreaty, when he found

Spanish gradually returning to him, was to the Spaniards not to harass his Indian following. Then he besought

the Indians themselves to cease their nomad life and cultivate the soil. In neither case was he successful, as

the Spaniards, like all other Europeans, held Indians little removed from dogs. And for the Indians, the few

remaining are as much attached to their old wandering life as in the days of the discovery of the New World.

In all that Alvar Nu�ez writes, he shows a grandeur of soul and spirit far different from the writings, not only

of the conquerors of the New World, but of the conquerors of Africa of today. For him no bragging of his

exploits. [33] All that he says he sets down modestly and with excuses (as every now and then, 'Me pesa

hablar de mis trabajos'), and as befits a gentleman. Lastly, he leaves the reader (when describing his captivity

in Florida), by telling him quite quietly and without comment that God was pleased to save from all these

perils himself, Alonso del Castillo Maldonado, Andres Dorantes, and that the fourth was a negro called

Estevanico, a native of Azimur. But, not contented with his ten years' captivity, after three years at home he

entered into a certain asiento [34] and capitulacion [35] with the King to sail at his own charges with an

expedition to succour Don Pedro de Mendoza, who was hard pressed by famine and the Indians at Buenos

Ayres. He agreed to furnish eight thousand ducats, horses, arms, men, and provisions at his own expense,

upon condition that he was made Governor and Adelantado of the Rio de la Plata, and General both of its

Upon November 2, 1537, he embarked at Cadiz with his fleet, consisting of a caravel and two fullrigged

ships. All went well up to the Cape de Verdes. On nearing the equator, it occurred to the 'Maestro del Agua'

to examine his stock of water, and, out of one hundred pipes which had been put aboard, he found but three

remaining, and from these the thirty horses and four hundred men who were on board all had to drink. Seeing

the greatness of the necessity, the Governorfor Alvar Nu�ez almost always speaks of himself in the third

persongave orders that the fleet should make for land. 'Three days,' he says in his Commentaries, 'we

sailed in search of it'; and on the fourth, just before sunrise, occurred a very notable affair, and, as it is not

altogether fuera de proposito, I set it down, and it is this'that, going towards the land, the ships had almost

touched on some sharp rocks we had not seen.' Then, as now, I take it, vigilance was not a noticeable quality

in Spanish sailors. Just as the vessels were almost on the rocks, 'a cricket commenced to sing, which cricket a

sick soldier had put into the ship at Cadiz, being anxious to hear its music, and for the two months which our

navigation had endured no one had heard it, whereat the soldier was much enraged; and as on that morning it

felt the land [sinti� la tierra], it commenced to sing, and its music wakened all the people of the ship, who

saw the cliffs, which were distant almost a crossbowshot from where we were, so we cast out anchors and

saved the ship, and it is certain that if the cricket had not sung all of us, four hundred soldiers and thirty

horses, had been lost.' Some of the crew accepted the occurrence as a miracle from God; but Nu�ez himself is

silent on that head, being a better observer of natural history than a theologian. But 'from there, and sailing

more than a hundred leagues along the coast, the cricket every evening gave us his music, and thus with it we

arrived at a little port beyond Cape Frio, where the Adelantado landed and unfurled his flag, and took

possession for His Majesty.' The expedition disembarked at Santa Catalina in Brazil. 'There the Governor

landed his men and twentysix of the horses which had escaped the sea, all that remained of fortysix

embarked in Spain.' The odium theologicum gave the Governor some work at once. Two friarsFray

Bernardo de Armenta and Fray Alonso Lebron, Franciscanshad burnt the houses of some Indians, who had

retaliated in the heathen fashion by slaughtering two Christians. The 'people being scandalized', the Governor

sent for the friars, admonished them, and told them to restrain their zeal. This was the first false step he made,

and set all friars and priests throughout America against him. Hearing at Santa Catalina that Buenos Ayres

was almost abandoned, and that the inhabitants had founded the town of Asuncion del Paraguay, Alvar

determined to march thither by land, and send his ship into the river Plate and up the Paraguay. The two

Franciscan friars he told to remain and 'indoctrinate' the Indians. This they refused to do, saying they wished

to reside amongst the Spaniards in Asuncion. Had they been Jesuits, it is ten to one they had remained and

spent their lives 'indoctrinating', for the Jesuits alone of all the religious Orders were ever ready to take every

Upon his march the Governor, contrary to all good policy and precedent, ordered that nothing should be taken

from the Indians without due payment being made. To insure this being done, he paid for all provisions

himself, and served them out to the soldiery. This made him as unpopular with his soldiers as his dealings

with the two Franciscans had made him amongst the friars. Surely he might have known that Pizarro, Cortes,

Almagro, and the rest, were men who never paid for anything. Still, he persisted in his conduct to the end,

and so brought ruin on himself. The Indians seemed to appreciate his method, for he says that 'when the news

was spread abroad of the good treatment the Governor gave to all, they came to meet the army decked with

flowers and bringing provisions in great abundance.' It was, he also says, 'a thing to see how frightened the

Indians were of the horses, and how they brought them food, chickens and honey to keep them quiet and in

After passing the river Iguaz�, he sent the two friars ahead to collect provisions, and 'when the Governor

So having started from the coast upon November 2, 1541, he arrived at Asuncion on March 2, 1542, having

accomplished a march of more than two thousand miles with but the loss of a single man and without the

slaughter of a single Indian. Hardly had he arrived at Asuncion before he found himself embroiled on every

side. The Indians were in full rebellion, the settlement of Buenos Ayres almost in ruins, and the officers

After having consulted with the clergy to find if they thought it lawful to attack the Guaycur�s who had

assailed the newlyfounded town, he received the opinion 'that it was not only lawful, but expedient.'

Therefore he sent off an expedition against them, to which was joined a priest to require the Guaycur�s to

become Christians and to acknowledge the King of Spain. The propositions, not unnaturally, did not seem

reasonable to the Indians, who most likely were unaware of the benefits which Christianity confers, and

probably heard for the first time of the King of Spain. The Governor, who seems to have doubted of the

humanity of the clergy, called another council, which confirmed the previous opinion. Strangely enough, this

seems to have surprised him, for he probably did not reflect that the clergy would not have to fight

themselves, and that the first blood ever spilt on earth was on account of a religious difference.

Just before the expedition started it was found that the two Franciscan friars who had come with him from

Santa Catalina could not be found. It then appeared they had started back to the coast accompanied by a bevy

of Indian damsels, thirtyfive in all. They were followed and brought back, and then explained that they were

on their way to Spain to complain against the Governor. The fiveandthirty dusky catechumens remained

without an explanation, and the people were once more 'scandalized'. The Governor then started out against

the Guaycur�s. Only those who know the Chaco, or western bank of the river Paraguay, can form the least

idea of what such an expedition must have been. Even today in the Chaco the change since the beginning of

the world can be but slight. As a steamer slips along the bank, nothing for miles and miles is seen but swamp,

intersected with backwaters, [37] in which lie alligators, electric eels, and stinging rays. Far as the eye can

reach are swamps, swamps, and more swamps, a sea of waving pampagrass. After the swamps thickets of

tacuaras (canes), forests of thorny trees, chanares, nandubay, jacarandas, urundey, talas, and quebrachos, each

one hard enough to split an axe, some, like the black canela, almost like iron; the inhabitants ferocious and

intractable as when the Governor himself first saw them; the climate heavy and humid, the air dank with

vinchucas [38] and mosquitoes and the little black infernal midget called the jej�n; no roads, no paths, no

landmarks, but here and there at intervals of many leagues a clearing in the forest where some straggling

settlement exists, more rarely still the walls of a deserted Jesuit missionhouse or church. Ostriches and deer,

tigers, capibaras and tapirs, and now and then a herd of cattle as wild as buffaloes, are seen. Sometimes an

Indian with his lance sits motionless upon his horse to watch the vessel passa sentinel to guard the

wilderness from encroachments from without. So Alvar Nu�ez, as he tells us in his Commentaries, started

with four hundred men and with one thousand friendly Indians, all well armed and painted, and with plates of

metal on their heads to reflect the sun, and so strike terror to their enemies. To save the horses they were put

on board, [39] whilst the Indians marched along the bank, keeping up with the ships. Horses at that time in

Paraguay and in Peru often were worth one thousand crowns of gold, though Azara tells us that in the last

century in Buenos Ayres you could often buy a good horse for two needles, so cheap had they become. Then,

as at present, time was of no account in Paraguay, so almost every day they landed the horses to keep them in

Just the kind of army that a thinking man would like to march with; not too much to eat, but, still, a pleasant

feeling of marching to spread religion and to make one's fortune, with but the solitary unpleasant feature to

the soldierthe system of payment for provisions which the Governor prescribed. All was new and strange;

the world was relatively young. Each night the Governor religiously wrote up his diary, now chronicling the

death of some good horse, or of an Indian, or commenting upon the fruits, the fish, the animals, the trees, and

'all the other things of God which differ from those in the Castiles.' Occasionally a fight took place with

Guasarapos or with Pagayuas, but nothing of much account (de mucha monta); always the tales of

goldmines to be met with further on. Eventually the expedition came to a point not far from where is now

the town of Corumba. There Alvar Nu�ez founded a town to which he gave the name of Reyes, which has

long fallen into decay. He also sent two captains to explore and search for gold, waiting two or three months

for their return, and suffering from a quartan ague which confined him to his bed; then, having failed to find

the talkedof goldmines, he set his face again towards Asuncion. Just before starting he gave the final blow

to his waning popularity. Some of his followers, having taken Indian girls, had hidden them on board the

ships; this, when he knew it, Nu�ez at once forbade, and, sending for the fathers of the girls, restored their

children to them. 'With this,' he says, 'the natives were much pleased, but the Spaniards rendered angry and

desperate, and for this cause they hated me.' Nothing more natural, and for the same cause the Spanish

Paraguayans hated the Jesuits who carried out the policy which the wise Governor began.

On April 8, 1543, the Governor returned to Asuncion, worn out and ill with ague. There he found all

confusion. Domingo de Irala, a clever, ambitious Biscayan soldier who had been interim Governor before

Nu�ez had arrived, had worked upon the people, saying that Nu�ez wished to take away their property. As

their chief property was in Indians whom they had enslaved, this rendered Nu�ez most unpopular, and the

same kind of allegations were laid against him as were laid against the Jesuits when in their turn they

denounced slavery in Paraguay. All the complaints were in the name of liberty, as generally is the case when

So Alvar Nu�ez [40] tells us in his Commentaries that at the hour of the Ave Maria ten or twelve of the

'factious' entered his house where he lay ill in bed, all shouting 'Liberty!' and to prove they were all good

patriots one Jaime Resquin put a bent crossbow to his side, and forced him to get out of bed, and took him off

to prison amid a crowd all shouting 'Liberty!' The friends of liberty (upon the other side) attempted a rescue,

but the patriots [41] were too strong. So the unpatriotic Governor was thrown, heavily ironed, into a cell, out

of which to make room they let a murderer who was awaiting death. 'He' (Alvar Nu�ez grimly remarks)

'made haste to take my cloak, and then set off down the street at once, calling out "Liberty!"' That everything

should be in order, the patriots confiscated all the Governor's goods and took his papers, publishing a

proclamation that they did so because he was a tyrant. Unluckily, the Indians have not left us any

commentaries, or it would be curious to learn what they thought as to the tyranny of Alvar Nu�ez. Most

probably they thought as the Indians of the Jesuit missions thought at the expulsion of the Jesuits from

Paraguay, as is set forth in the curious memorial addressed in 1768 by the people of the Mission of San Luis

to the Governor of Buenos Ayres, praying that the Jesuits might be suffered to remain instead of the friars,

who had been sent to replace them against the people's will. [42] Having got the Governor into prison, the

patriots had to elect another chief, and the choice naturally 'fell' upon Domingo de Irala, who, having been

interim Governor, had never ceased intriguing from the first. He promptly put his friends in office, after the

fashion of all Governors, whether they enter office to the cry of 'Liberty' or not. The friends of Alvar Nu�ez,

in the usual Spanish fashion (long sanctified by use and wont), declared themselves in oppositionthat is,

they roamed about the land, proving by theft and murder that their love of liberty was just as strong as that of

those in power. Things shortly came to such a pass that no one could leave his house by night. The marauding

Guaycur�s burnt all the suburbs, and threatened to attack the town. Nu�ez himself was guarded day and night

by four men armed with daggers in a close prison. As he says himself, his prison was not 'fitting for his

health,' for day and night he had to keep a candle burning to see to read, and the grass grew underneath his

bed, whilst for the sake of 'health' he had a pair of firstrate fetters on his feet. For his chief gaoler they

procured one Hernando de Sosa, whom Nu�ez had put in gaol for striking an Indian chief. A guard watched

constantly at the prison gate, but, still, in spite of this he managed to communicate almost uninterruptedly

with his friends outside. His method was certainly ingenious. His food was brought to him by an Indian girl,

whom, so great was the fear of the patriots that he should write to the King, they made walk naked into the

prison, carrying the dishes, and with her head shaved. Notwithstanding this, she managed to bring a piece of

paper hidden between her toes. The party of Liberty, suspecting that Nu�ez was communicating with his

friends, procured an Indian youth to make love to the girl and learn the secret. This he failed to do, owing,

perhaps, to his lovemaking being wanting in conviction on account of her shaved head. At last Irala and his

friends determined to send the Governor a prisoner to Spain, taking care, of course, to despatch a messenger

beforehand to distort the facts and prejudice the King. The friends of Nu�ez, however, managed to secrete a

box of papers, stating the true facts, on board the ship. At dead of night a band of harquebusiers dragged him

from his bed (after a captivity of eleven months), as he says, 'almost with the candle in his hand'i.e., in a

dying state. As he left the prison, he fell upon his knees and thanked God for having let him once more feel

the air of heaven, and then in a loud voice exclaimed: 'I name as my successor Captain Juan de Salazar de

Espinosa.' At this one Garci Vargas rushed at him with a knife, and told him to recall his words or he would

kill him instantly. This he was stopped from doing, and Nu�ez was hurried to the ship and chained securely

to a beam. On board the vessel, he says, they tried to poison him; but this seems doubtful, as there was

nothing on earth to prevent their doing so had they been so inclined. Still, as a prudent man he took the

precaution to provide some oil and a piece of unicorn (pedazo de unicornio), with which he tried the food.

Unicorns he could not have seen in Paraguay, nor yet in Florida, and he does not explain how he became so

None the less, of all the discoverers of America he is the man of least imaginative powerthat is, in matters

appertaining to natural historyso one must conclude he had his piece of unicorn from Spain, where he most

probably had bought it from some dealer in necessaries for travellers to the New World.

After a stormy voyage he arrived in Spain to find his accusers just before him. With truly Eastern justice,

both accusers and accused were put in gaol, a custom worthy of adoption in other lands. Nu�ez was soon

released on bail, and, his accusers having all died, in eight years' time he was triumphantly acquitted of all the

charges brought against him. To prove, however, that Justice is and always has been blind, the King never

restored him to his government in Paraguay, and, as Nu�ez says, forgot to repay him what he had expended

in his service. [43] With Alvar Nu�ez was lost the only chance of liberal treatment to the Indians, for from his

time the governors, instead of being men of the world above the petty spite of party differences, were chosen

either from officers who, having served in the frontier wars, quite naturally looked on the Indians as enemies,

or were appointed by intriguing Ministers at Court. From the death of Alvar Nu�ez to the inauguration of the

missions by the Jesuits, no one arose to take the Indians' side, and it may be that had his policy prevailed

there would have been an Indian population left in the mission territory of Paraguay; for had the civil

governors cooperated with the Jesuits, the dispersion of the Indians, which took place at the expulsion of the

Thus was Domingo Martinez de Irala left in sole command in Paraguay. He naturally had all to gain by not

communicating with Spain. Had he done so, the part he played in reference to Alvar Nu�ez must have been

known. He had, however, certain good qualities, courage in abundance, Herculean strength and great

endurance, and the power of making himself obeyed. But he had to justify himself to Spain for his position,

and the surest way to do so was to discover goldmines. So, naming Francisco de Mendoza his lieutenant, he

started up the Paraguay, taking with him three hundred and fifty soldiers and two thousand Guaran�s. After

many hardships, he reached the frontiers of Peru, only to find the country already conquered from the Pacific

side, and to be met by the messengers of the wise President, La Gasca, who told him to return, and named one

Diego Centeno Governor of Paraguay instead of him. Centeno died before he could assume the governorship,

After a year and a half he returned to Paraguay, having found no gold or riches, but bringing many thousand

Indians as slaves. It is important to remember that Irala, who was remarkable for his relatively kind treatment

of the Indians, on this occasion led so many of them captive. On arriving at Asuncion he found a rebellion

going on, as not infrequently occurred when a Spanish Governor left his domains. His lieutenant, Mendoza,

had been killed by one Diego de Abreu. After quieting matters in Asuncion, he despatched Nuflo de Chaves

Like many other captains of those days, the idea of Chaves was to make himself quite independent of

authority; so, striking into the interior, he founded the town of Santa Cruz de la Sierra in Bolivia. After many

adventures he was killed by an Indian, who struck him with a club whilst he was sitting eating without his

Irala died at the little village of Ita in 1557, and was buried in the cathedral at Asuncion, which he was

building at the time. With him expired the generation of the conquering soldiers of fortune, who, schooled in

the wars of Italy, brought to America some of the virtues and all the vices of the Old World. After him began

the reign of the halfcaste Spaniards who were the progenitors of the modern occupants of the

SpanishAmerican republics. At Irala's death the usual feuds, which have for the last three hundred years

disgraced every part of Spanish America, began. Into them it is unnecessary to enter, for with Irala died

almost the only Governor of Paraguay who showed the smallest capacity to make himself obeyed.

True indeed that Arias de Saavedra, a native of Paraguay and LieutenantGovernor under Ramirez de

Velasco, the Governor of Tucuman, displayed some traces of ability and of intelligence. He it was who first

Whilst Alvar Nu�ez and Irala, with Nuflo de Chaves and the other captains, had been conquering and

building towns, the Jesuits had been preaching in the wilderness and gathering together the Indian tribes. Not

ten years after the foundation of their Order, [44] or about 1550, they had landed at San Salvador de Bahia in

In 1554, in the district of Guayr�, on the upper waters of the Paran�, and above the cataract, the towns of

Ontiveros, Ciudad Real, and Villa Rica, had been founded by Don Ruy Diaz de Melgarejo.

In 1586 Fathers Alfonso Barcena and Angulo left the town of Santa Maria de las Charcas (Bolivia) at the

request of Francisco Vitoria, Bishop of Santiago, who had appealed for missionaries to the Society of Jesus.

They reached the province of Guayr�, and began their labours. Shortly afterwards they were joined by

Fathers Estezan Grao, Juan Solano, and Thomas Fields; Solano and Fields had already visited some of the

In 1593 others arrived, as Juan Romero, Gaspar de Monroy, and Marcelino Lorenzana. Shortly after this they

founded the college in Asuncion. Then Fathers Ortega and Vellarnao penetrated into the mountains of the

In 1602 Acquaviva, seeing the necessity of common action, called all the scattered Jesuits of Paraguay and

the river Plate to a conference at Salta to deliberate as to their future policy. [45] In 1605 Father Diego Torres

was named Provincial of the Jesuits of Paraguay and Chile, thus proving both the paucity of Jesuits in South

America at the time, and the little idea the General in Rome had of the immensity of the countries he was

Torres arrived in Lima with fifteen priests, and almost at the same time some others arrived at Buenos Ayres;

both parties proceeded to Paraguay. Already the Jesuits found themselves a prey to calumny.

Both in Tucuman and Paraguay they were expected to lend themselves to the enslavement of the Indians. In

Chile Father Valdivia was expelled from Santiago, and took refuge at Tucuman. There he found the condition

of affairs so intolerable that he went to Madrid to solicit the protection of the King, Philip III., for his Indian

In 1608 Philip issued his royal letters patent to the Society of Jesus for the conversion of the Indians in the

The Bishop and the Governor, Arias de Saavedra (himself a Paraguayan by birth), offered no objection, and

Fathers Simon Maceta and Jos� Cataldino (both Italians) left Asuncion on October 10, 1609, and arrived in

There they met the Indians amongst whom Fields and Ortega had begun to labour, and there they founded the

Reduction [47] of Loreto, the first permanent establishment instituted by the Jesuits amongst the Guaran�s.

Thus, in the woods of Paraguay, upon a tributary of the Paran� but little known even today, did the Society

of Jesus lay the first foundation of their famous missions. But little more than fifty years from the foundation

of their Order, thus had they penetrated to what was then, and is perchance today, after their missions all are

There they built up the system with which their name is linked for everthe system which for two hundred

years was able to hold together wandering Indian tribes, restless as Arabs, suspicious above every other race

of menand which today has disappeared, leaving nothing of a like nature in all the world.

[2] Though in this respect Charlevoix is not so credulous as Padre Ruiz de Montoya and the older writers, he

yet repeats the story of the bird that cleans the alligator's teeth, the magic virtues of the tapir's nails, and many

[3] Dobrizhoffer's book was written in Latin, and printed in Vienna in 1784 under the title of 'Historia de

Abiponibus', etc. A German translation by Professor Keil was published at Pesth in the same year. The

[4] It is to be remembered that the Spanish colonists were as a rule antagonistic to the Jesuits, and that,

therefore, Spanish writers do not of necessity hold a brief for the Jesuits in Paraguay. Moreover, the names of

Esmid (Smith), Fildo (Fields), Dobrizhoffer, Cataldini and Tomas Bruno (Brown, who is mentioned as being

natural de Yorca), Filge, Limp, Pifereti, Enis, and Asperger, the quaint medical writer on the virtues of plants

found in the mission territory, show how many foreign Jesuits were actually to be found in the reductions of

Paraguay. For more information on this matter see the 'Coleccion de Documentos relativos � la Expulsion de

los Jesuitas de la Republica Argentina y Paraguay', published and collected by Francisco Javier Brabo,

[5] The Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, in his 'Commentarios Reales' (en Madrid 1723, en la oficina Real y � costa

de Nicholas Rodriguez Franco, Impressor de libros, se hallaran en su casa en la calle de el Po�o y en Palacio),

derives the word from the Quichua 'Chac�' = a surrounding. If he is right, it would then be equivalent to the

Gaelic 'tinchel'. Taylor, the Waterpoet, has left a curious description of one of these tinchels. It was at a

[6] See the curious map contained in the now rare work of P. Pedro Lozano, entitled, 'Descripcion

Chorographica . . . del Gran Chaco, Gualamba', etc. Also in the interesting collection of old maps published

[7] It is, of course, to be taken into consideration that my two journeys in Paraguay were made after the great

war which terminated in 1870, after lasting four years; but the writings of Demersay ('Histoire du Paraguay et

des �tablissements des J�suites', Paris, 1862), those of Brabo, and of Azara, show the deserted state of the

district of Misiones in the period from 1767, the date of the expulsion of the Jesuits, to the middle of the

[9] See the reports of the Marques de Valdelirios and others in the publications of Francisco Javier Brabo,

Madrid, 1872, and in the 'Ensayo de la Historia Civil de Paraguay, BuenosAyres y Tucuman', por Dr. Don

[10] Bernal Diaz, 'Historia de la Conquista de la Nueva Espa�a', vol. iv., cap. 207, Madrid, 1796.

[11] Especially noting down the appearance and qualities of 'el caballo Motilla', the horse of Gonzalo de

Sandoval. Thus does he minutely describe Motilla, 'the best horse in Castille or the Indies'. 'El mejor caballo,

y de mejor carrera, revuelto � una mano y � otra que decian que no se habia visto mejor en Castilla, ni en esa

tierra era casta�o acasta�ado, y una estrella en la frente, y un pie izquierdo calzado, que se decia el caballo

Motilla; � quando hay ahora diferencia sobre buenos caballos, suclen decir es en bondad tan bueno como

[12] 'La Argentina', included in the 'Coleccion de Angelis', Buenos Ayres, 1836.

[13] 'Historia y Descubrimiento de el Rio de la Plata y Paraguay', Hulderico Schmidel, contained in the

collection made by Andres Gonzalez Barcia, and published in 1769 at Madrid under the title of 'Historiadores

[14] The great Las Casas, who made seven voyages from America to Spain the last at the age of

seventytwoto protect the Indians, had a strong opinion about 'conquerors' and 'conquests'. In the

dedication of his great treatise on the wrongs of the Indians, he says: 'Que no permita (Felipe II.) las

atrocidades que los tiranos inventaron, y que prosiguen haciendo con titulo de "conquistas". Los que se jactan

de ser "conquistadores" a que descienden de ellos son muchomas orgullosos arrogantes y vanos que los otros

Espa�oles.' Strange that even today the same atrocidades of tiranos are going on in Africa. No doubt the

descendants of these 'conquerors' will be as arrogant, proud, and vain as the descendants of the

[15] Mendoza left ('Azara Apuntamientos para la Historia Natural de los Quadrupedes del Paraguay', etc.)

five mares and seven horses in the year 1535. In 1580 Don Juan de Garay, at the second founding of the city,

already found troops of wild horses. The cattle increased to a marvellous extent, and by the end of the century

were wild in Patagonia. Sarmiento ('Civilisation et Barbarisme') says that early in this century they were often

killed by travellers, who tethered their horses to the carcasses to prevent them from straying at night.

[16] Hulderico Schmidel, 'Historia del Descubrimiento de el Rio de la Plata y Paraguay'.

[17] Perhaps the two most important works upon the language are the 'Tesoro de la Lengua Guarani', by Ruiz

de Montoya, Madrid, 1639 (it is dedicated to the 'Soberana Virgen'); and the 'Catecismo de la Lengua

Guarani', by Diego Diaz de la Guerra, Madrid, A�o de 1630. He also wrote a 'Bocabulario y Arte de la

[18] P. Guevara, in his 'Historia del Paraguay', relates a curious story which he said was current amongst the

Indians. Two brothers, Tupi and Guaran�, lived with their families upon the seacoast of Brazil. In those days

the world was quite unpopulated but by themselves. They quarrelled about a parrot, and Tupi with his family

went north, and populated all Brazil; whilst Guaran� went west, and was the ancestor of all the Indians of the

[19] Azara, in his 'Descripcion y Historia del Paraguay', has a similar passage: 'Recibe bien todo Indio

[20] 'Por lo comun reparten pedazos de este cuerpo, del qual pedazo cozido en mucha agua hacen unas

gachas (fritters) y es fiesta muy celebre para ellos que hacen con muchas cerimonias.'

[21] 'Histoire du Paraguay et des �tablissements des J�suites', L. Alfred Demersay, Paris, 1864.

[22] 'La Argentina', a long poem or rhyming chronicle contained in the collection of 'Historiadores Primitivos

[23] Lozano, in his 'Historia del Paraguay', compares it to Greek, but in my opinion fails to establish his case;

[24] He passed through the whole Chaco, descending the Pilcomayo to its junction with the Paraguay,

through territories but little explored even today. Perhaps the most complete description of the Chaco is that

of P. Lozano, with the following comprehensive title: 'Descripcion chorographica de Terreno Rios, Arboles, y

Animales de los dilatadisimas Provincias del Gran Chaco, Gualamba, y de los Ritos y Costumbres de la

inumerables naciones barbaros � infideles que le habitan. Con un cabal Relacion Historica de lo que en ellos

han obrado para conquistarlas algunos Gobernadores y Ministros Reales, y los Misioneros Jesuitas para reduc

irlos � la fe del Verdadero Dios.' Por el Padre Pedro Lozano, de la Compa�ia de Jesus, A�o de 1733. En

Cordoba por Joseph Santos Balbas. This book did not appear in a clandestine manner, for it had: 1. Censura,

por C. de Palmas. 2. Licencia de la Religion, por Geronymo de Hur�za, Provincial de los Jesuitas de

Andalucia. 3. Licencia del Ordinario por el Dr. Don Francisco Miguel Moreno, por mandado del Sr. Provisor

Alonso Joseph Gomez de Lara. 4. Aprobacion del Rdo. P. Diego Vasquez. 5. Privelegio de su Majestad por

Don Miguel Fernandez Morillo. 6. F� de Corrector por el Licenciado, Don Manuel Garcia Alesson, Corrector

General de su Majestad (who adds in a note, 'este libro corresponde � su original'). 7. Sumo de Tassa, as

follows: 'Tassaron los se�ores del Consejo este libro � seis maravedis cada pliego.' Palma, in the first censura,

says that he had read it several times 'con repetida complacencia', and that, though it was 'breve en volumen'

(it has 484 quarto pages), that it was also short in its concise style, kept closely to the rules of history, and

[25] This race at one time spread from the Orinoco to the river Plate, and even in the case of its offshoot, the

Chiriguanas, crossed to the west bank of the Paraguay. Padre Ruiz Montoya, in his 'Conquista Espiritual del

Paraguay', cap. i., speaking of the Guaran� race, says: 'Domina ambos mares el del sur por todo el Brasil y

ci�iendo el Peru con los dos mas grandes rios que conoce el orbe que son el de la Plata, cuya boca en

BuenosAyres es de ochenta leguas, y el gran Mara�on, � el inferior en nada e que pasa bien vecino de la

[26] Barco de la Centenera, in 'La Argentina', canto v., also refers to 'La Casa del Gran Moxo'. It was situated

[27] Their numerals are four in number (pete�, moco�, mbohapi, irindi); after this they are said to count in

Spanish in the same way as do the Guaran�speaking Paraguayans. Much has been written on the Guaran�

tongue by many authors, but perhaps the 'Gramatica', 'Tesoro', and the 'Vocabulario' of Padre Antonio Ruiz

Montoya, published at Madrid in 1639 and 1640, remain the most important works on the language. Padre

Sigismundi has left a curious work in Guaran� on the medicinal plants of Paraguay. Before the war of

186670 several MS. copies were said to exist in that country. See Du Gratz's 'R�publique du Paraguay', cap.

iv., p. 214. [28] See Demersay, 'Histoire du Paraguay', p. 324, for names of Guaran� tribes. Alfred Maury

also, in his 'La Terre et l'Homme Am�ricain', p. 392, speaks of 'le rameau brasilioGuaran�n, ou Car�ibe, qui

[29] Few modern 'conquerors' in Africa seem to have engaged in personal combat with the natives. Even of

Mr. Rhodes it is not set down that he has killed many Matabele with his own hands. Times change, not

[30] Santiago, as in duty bound, usually appeared whenever Spaniards were hard pressed. Few writers had the

courage of Bernal Diaz, who of a similar appearance said: 'But I, sinner that I was, was not worthy to see

him; whom I did see and recognise was Francisco de Morla on his chestnut horse' (Bernal Diaz, 'Historia de

[31] Thus it will be seen that the Franciscans were at work in the country long before the arrival of the

Jesuits. It may be on this account that they became such bitter enemies of the later comers.

[32] 'Comentarios de Alvar Nu�ez Cabeza de Vaca'. Published by Don Andres Gonzalez Barcia in his

[33] It must be allowed, however, that in their writings few of the Spanish conquistadores of America

bragged much. They mostly gave the credit of all their doings to the God of Battles. The boasting has been

[34] Asiento is a contract. The contract which Charles V., at the wellmeant but unfortunate instigation of

Las Casas, made with the Genoese to supply negroes for America is known as 'El Asiento de los Negros'.

[35] In the capitulacion made by Alvar Nu�ez with the King occurs the celebrated clause, 'Que no pasasen

procuradores ni abogados a las Indias', i.e., that neither solicitors nor barristers should go to the Indies. It is

unfortunate it was not held to stringently, as in Paraguay, at least, the Reptilia were already well represented.

[36] This is perhaps the first account of the levying of the tithe in the New World.

[38] The vinchuca is a kind of flying bug common in Paraguay. Its shape is triangular, its colour gray, and its

odour noxious. It is one of the Hemiptera, and its socalled scientific appellation is 'Conorhinus gigas'.

[39] Azara, in his 'Historia del Paraguay', etc., tells us that in 1551 Domingo de Irala at Asuncion bought a

fine black horse for five thousand gold crowns. He bound himself to pay for him out of the proceeds of his

[40] 'Comentarios de Alvar Nu�ez Cabeza de Vaca', contained in Barcia's 'Historiadores Primitivos de las

[42] '(I.H.S.) 'God preserve your Excellency, say we, the Cabildo, and all the Caciques and Indians, men,

women and children of San Luis, as your Excellency is our father. The Corregidor, Santiago Pindo and Don

Pantaleon Caynari, in their love for us, have written to us of certain birds which they desire we will send

them for the King. . . . We are sorry not to have them to send, inasmuch as they live where God made them,

in the forests, and fly far away from us, so that we cannot catch them. Withal we are the vassals of God and

of the King, and always desirous to fulfil the wishes of his Minister . . . so we pray to God that that best of

birds, the Holy Ghost, may descend upon the King. . . . Furthermore, we desire to say that the Spanish custom

is not to our likingfor everyone to take care of himself, instead of helping one another in their daily toil.'

This quaint and touching letter was written originally in Guaran�, and is preserved at Buenos Ayres. 'That

best of birds, the Holy Ghost,' shows faith grounded, at least, on ornithology, and the whole spirit of the

[43] Guevara, 'Historia del Paraguay' (printed in 'La Coleccion de Angelis', Buenos Aires, 1836), book vi., p.

108, says of Alvar Nu�ez: 'Merecia estatua por su rectitud, justicia y Christiandad.' And in another place

Guevara says: 'La Florida lo cautiv� con inhumanidad; La Asuncion lo aprision� con� infamia; pero en una y

otro parte fue ejemplar de moderacion . . . recto, prudente y de sano corazon.' Alvar Nu�ez died holding the

office of 'Oidor de la Audiencia de Sevilla', according to P. del Techo ('Historia del Paraguay'); or as a

[44] Acquaviva was General of the Order at this time; he was a man of marked ability and great energy.

[45] Before this date the Jesuits in Paraguay had been under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Bishops of

[46] Paranapan� = the White Paran�, or, according to others, the Paran� without fish.

Early days of the missions New settlements founded Relations of Jesuits with Indians and Spanish

colonists Destruction of missions by the Mamelucos Father Maceta Padre Antonio Ruiz de

IT DOES NOT seem doubtful but that the work done by Fathers Ortega and Filds [1] had borne some fruit.

Perhaps not quite after the fashion that the Jesuits believed; but when Maceta and Cataldino arrived at Guayr�

and founded the Reduction of Loreto, their success at first was of a nature that almost justified the epithet

'miraculous', an epithet which indeed all men apply to any enterprise of theirs which meets success. Almost

from the first inception of the missions, the Jesuits found themselves in the strange position of, though being

hated by the Spanish settlers, yet recurred to as mediators when any of the wild tribes proved too powerful for

the Spanish arms. Thus, far from cities, far from even such elementary civilization as Paraguay should show,

almost upon the edge of the great cataract of the Paran�, the Jesuits founded their first reduction; to which the

Indians flocked in such numbers that a second was soon necessary, to which they gave the name of San

For the first few years all went well with the Jesuits. The Indians, happy to escape the persecutions of the

Spaniards on the one hand, and the incursions of the Paulistas [2] on the other, flocked to the reductions,

mission after mission was soon formed, and the wild Indians gathered up into townships and taught the arts

of peace. But though the Guaran�s at first entered into the Jesuit reductions as a refuge against their

persecutors, the Portuguese and Spaniards, soon, as was only natural to men accustomed to a wild forest life,

they found the Jesuit discipline too irksome, and often fled back to the woods. Then the poor priest, left

without his flock, had to take up the trail of the flying neophytes, follow them to the recesses of the forests,

As a means to secure the confidence of the Indians, the Jesuits found themselves obliged to communicate as

rarely as possible with the Spanish settlements. Thus, from the first the policy of isolation, which was one of

the chief charges brought against the Order in later years, was of necessity begun. [3] Voltaire, no lover of

religious Orders, says of the Jesuits: [4] 'When in 1768 the missions of Paraguay left the hands of the Jesuits,

they had arrived at perhaps the highest degree of civilization to which it is possible to conduct a young

people, and certainly at a far superior state than that which existed in the rest of the new hemisphere. The

laws were respected there, morals were pure, a happy brotherhood united every heart, all the useful arts were

in a flourishing state, and even some of the more agreeable sciences; plenty was universal.'

It is, however, to be remembered that Voltaire wrote as a philosopher, and not as an economist, and that his

statement most probably would be traversed by those who see advancement rather in material improvement

than in moral happiness, for without doubt, in Lima and in Mexico upon the whole, society must have made

amongst the Spanish and Spanishdescended citizens greater advances than in the Jesuit reductions of

Paraguay. In some respects their almost inaccessible situation close to the cataract of the Paran� was

favourable to the early Jesuits, and in quick succession the villages of Loreto, San Francisco Xavier, San

Jos�, San Ignacio, San Pedro, and others of less importance, were founded, containing in all about forty

So in the Jesuit reductions of the province of Guayr� was first begun the system of treating the Indians

kindly, and standing between them and the Spanish settlers, which made the Company of Jesus so hated

afterwards in Paraguay. Little by little their influence grew, so that when, in 1614, Padre Antonio Ruiz de

Montoya arrived, he found that there were already one hundred and nineteen Jesuits in Guayr� and in

Paraguay. Of all the Jesuits who, during the long period of their labours, appeared in Paraguay, he was the

most remarkable; one of the most learned men of the age in which he lived, he yet united in himself the

qualities of a man of action to those of scholar and of missionary. Without his presence most likely not a

tenth part of the Indians would have escaped after the destruction of the missions of Guayr� in 1630 and 1631

at the hands of the halfcivilized hordes known as Paulistas or Mamalucos, who from the city of S�o Paulo

carried fire and sword amongst the Guaran�s. It is easy to understand that the Spanish colonists, who had

looked on all the Indians as slaves, were rendered furious by the advent of the Jesuits, who treated them as

Today the European colonist in Africa labours less to enslave than to exterminate the natives; but if a body

of clergy of any sect having the abnegation and disregard of consequences of the Jesuits of old should arise,

fancy the fury that would be evoked if they insisted that it were as truly murder to slay a black man as it is to

kill a man whose skin is white. Most fortunately, our clergy of today, especially those of the various

churches militant in Uganda, think otherwise, and hold that Christ was the first inventor of the 'colourline'.

At the first settlement of South America great semifeudal fiefs called encomiendas were granted to the

conquerors. One of the conditions of their tenure was that the encomenderos (the owners of the fiefs) 'should

see to the religious education of the Indians'. Much the same kind of thing as to enjoin kindness and Christian

forbearance upon the directors of a modern Chartered Company. But, in addition to the encomiendas, two

other systems were in vogue called yanaconas and mitayos, which were in fact designed to reduce the Indians

Herrera [6] says that the 'yanaconas were men destined from birth to perpetual slavery and captivity, and in

their clothing, treatment, and the conditions of their toil, were differently treated from free men.'

In Paraguay these yanaconas were known as 'Indios Originarios', and generally were descendants of Indians

conquered in war; they, too, were in a condition of serfdom. They lived in the house of the encomendero, and

could not be sold, and the encomendero was (in theory) obliged not only to feed and clothe them, but to

instruct them in religious truths. In order to see that these conditions were duly carried out, visitors were sent

Herrera [7] describes the Indians under the mitayo system by the name of mitayos tindarunas, explaining that

the word tindaruna signifies 'forced labour'. The chiefs had to provide a certain number of them every year to

work in mines and manufactories, and so well was the labour in the mines known to be fatal, that the Indians

upon being drawn for service disposed of all their property, and not infrequently divorced their wives. The

mitayos were at the beginning Indians who had not fought against the Spaniards, but had submitted to their

rule. They were grouped in townships composed of portions of a tribe under a chief to whom the Spaniards

gave the position of Alcalde. In the towns thus formed only the men between eighteen and fifty were liable to

be drawn for service in the mines; originally their term of service was for only two months in the year, and

for the remaining ten months they were in theory as free as were the Spanish settlers. By 1612 the abuses of

their system had so diminished the number of the Indians that Don Francisco de Alfaro was named by the

Spanish Government to report upon it, and to reform abuses where he found it possible. His report declared

that the Guaran�s and Guaycur�s should not be made slaves of, and it abolished in their favour the forced

labour which they had previously endured. The European settlers in Asuncion thought that this was owing to

the influence of the Jesuits, and therefore they expelled them from the town. Recalled to Santiago, they

founded there a college, and those who remained in Paraguay pushed on the missionwork. Brabo [8] points

out that the first twenty reductions founded by the Company of Jesus were settled in the first twenty years

from their first appearance in the land, [9] and that from the foundation of the Mission of St. George (the last

established of the first twenty towns) to that of San Joaquim, in the wild forests of the Tarum�, they

employed a hundred and twelve years. In the interval they chiefly occupied themselves in the consolidation of

their first settlements, and in various unsuccessful attempts to institute similar reductions amongst the Indians

But whilst the Jesuits were settling their reductions in the province of Guayr� and those upon the Paran� and

Uruguay, a nest of hawks looked at their neophytes as pigeons ready fattening for their use. Almost eight

hundred miles away, at the city of S�o Paulo de Piritinanga, in Brazil, a strange society had come into

existence by degrees. Peopled at first by Portuguese and Dutch adventurers and malefactors, it had become a

nest of pirates and a home for all the desperadoes of Brazil and Paraguay. This engaging population, being in

want of wives whereby to propagate their virtues, took to themselves Indians and negresses, and bred a race

worse ten times than were themselves, as often happens both in the cases of Mulattos and Mestizos in

America. Under the name of Mamelucos [10] (given to them no one knows why) they soon became the terror

of the land. Equally at home on horseback, in canoes upon the rivers, or in schooners on the sea, excellent

marksmen and courageous fighters, they subsisted chiefly by procuring Indians as slaves for the plantations

in Brazil. In a short time they exhausted all the Indians near S�o Paulo, and were forced to search far in the

depths of the unknown interior. Little by little, following the course of the great rivers in their canoes, they

reached the Jesuit settlements upon the upper waters of the Paran�, where they burned the towns and the

churches, made captives of the converts, and killed the priests. Montoya relates that a Jesuit, having clasped

an Indian in his arms to save him, was deluged with his blood, a Mameluco having crept up behind him and

plunged his lance into the Indian behind the Jesuit's back. The Mameluco, on being, as Montoya says,

'reprehended' by the Jesuit, dogmatically remarked, 'I shall be saved in spite of God, for to be saved a man

has only to believe,' [11] a remark which showed him clearly an honest opponent of the Jesuits, as they

Ruiz Montoya and others tell us that the plan of action of the Paulistas was either to attack the Jesuit

reductions on Sunday, when the sheep were gathered in the fold listening to Mass, surround the church,

murder the priest, and carry off the neophytes as slaves; or else, disguised as Jesuits, enter a mission, gain the

confidence of the Indians, and then communicate with their soldiers, who were waiting in the woods. But not

content with this, it seems, so often did they practise singing Mass to pass as Jesuits, that on returning to S�o

Paulo, in their orgies, their great diversion was to masquerade as priests. So that the rascals not only profited

by their villainy, but extracted much amusement from their wicked deeds. [12] This, in Montoya's opinion,

was even more damnable than the actual crime. And so no doubt it was, and we in England, by having made

our vice as dull as virtue is in other lands, have gone some way towards morality, for vice and virtue, both

deprived of humour, become not so far separated as some virtuous dull folk may think.

Quite naturally, these redoubtable land and river pirates saw in the Jesuit reductions upon the Paranapan�,

and generally throughout the district of Guayr�, merely an opportunity of capturing more Indians than usual

at a haul. In 1629 they first appeared before the Mission of San Antonio and destroyed it utterly, burning the

church and houses, and driving off the Indians to sell as slaves. San Miguel and JesusMaria shortly suffered

the same fate. In Concepcion Padre Salazar was regularly besieged, and he and all the people reduced to

eating dogs, cats, rats, mice, and even snakes. At the last moment, when about to surrender, Father Cataldino,

hastily arming some Indians with any rude weapons at his command, marched on the place and raised the

siege. A worthy member of the Church militant this exploring, fighting, intrepid Italian priest, and one the

Company of Jesus should honour, for to him, perhaps as much as to any of these first explorers of the Upper

But still the Mamelucos ran their course, destroying town after town, so that in the short space of a year

(163031) they destroyed partially the reductions of San Francisco Xavier, San Jos�, San Pedro, and La

Concepcion; and the two first founded, San Ignacio and Loreto, were ruined utterly. The wretched Indians, to

whom by law the Jesuits were forbidden to serve out firearms, stood no chance against the welltrained

Paulistas, with their horses, guns, and bloodhounds, assisted as they were by troops of savage Indians who

discharged poisoned arrows from blowpipes and from bows. Small wonder that, as Montoya, Charlevoix,

Lahier, [13] and Filiberto Monero [14] all agree, despair took hold of them, so that in many instances they

cursed the Jesuits and fled back to the woods. When one reflects that many of the Indian tribes looked upon

baptism as a poison, [15] it is not strange that they should have associated effect with cause, and set down all

their sufferings to the influence of the malignant rite to which the Jesuits had subjected them. The isolated

Jesuits ran considerable risk from their own sheep, and Padre Mola, after the ruin of San Antonio, was

suspected by them of being in league with the Paulistas, and had to flee for safety to another town; and as a

touch of comedy is seldom wanting to make things bitterer to those in misfortune, a troop of savage Indians,

having arrived to attack the Reduction of San Antonio, and finding it already burning, instantly thought poor

Padre Mola had been the instigator, and, starting on his trail, almost surprised him before he reached a refuge

Thus in the greater world reformers of all sorts have not infrequently in times of scarcity and danger been

taken by their prot�g�s for the authors of their trials and stoned, whilst the smug Government which caused

the ruin, well bolstered up in the affection of its 'taxables', chuckled, serenely confident in the unending folly

of mankind. Most certainly the Jesuits struggled to do their duty to their neophytes in what they thought they

saw was right. On foot and unattended Fathers Maceta and Mansilla followed the fifteen thousand captives to

Brazil, confessing those who fell upon the road before they died, and instant in supplication to the Paulistas

for the prisoners' release. Father Maceta especially behaved heroically, carrying the chains of those who

could hardly drag themselves along, himself half dead with hunger and his constant toil. Especially he strove

to effect the release of a captive chief called Guiravera, who had been one of his bitterest enemies, and strove

so hard that a Paulista captain, either touched by his zeal or wearied with his pleading, released the chief, his

wife and family, and six of the Indians of his tribe. The chief returned to become the Jesuits' best friend, and

the two priests on foot followed the captives' train. What they endured on foot without provisions, tortured by

insects, and in danger from wild beasts, as well as constant perils from the Paulistas, who now and then

pricked them with lances or fired pistols over their heads to frighten them away, none but those who have

journeyed in the forests of that forgotten corner of the world can estimate. I see them in their torn and

sunbrowned cassocks struggling through the esteros [16] in water to the knees, falling and rising oft, after

the fashion of the supposititious Christian on life's way; pushing along through forest paths across which

darted hummingbirds, now coming on a dying man and kneeling by his side, now gathering the berries of

the guavirami [17] to eat upon the road, and then again catching sight of a jaguar as it slunk beside the trail,

and all the time convinced that all their efforts, like the efforts of most of those who strive, would be in vain.

So stumbling through the woods, crossing the rivers on inflated oxskins, baked by the sun upon the open

plains, at length the Jesuits reached S�o Paulo, where they had a college, and without resting set at once to

work. In season (and what in cases of the kind is ten times more important), out of season, they besought,

pleaded, and preached, and finding as little grace from the Paulista chiefs as a transgressor against some fiery

dogma would find from a sourfaced North British dogmatist, they started for Rio de Janeiro to see the

CouncilGeneral of Brazil. There they were told that the right person to address was the CaptainGeneral of

the colony, who had his residence in Bahia, five or six hundred miles away. Not the least daunted, they set

out, and found Don Diego Luis Oliveira more or less friendly, but as usual fearful of giving offence to those

who had a vested interest in the trade. Then the two Jesuits, hearing that another invasion of the Paulistas was

expected in Guayr�, started back on their long journey through the woods, over the plains, across the

mountain ranges, and through the dank esteros which lay between them and their missions on the Paran�. The

CaptainGeneral seems to have been roused to a sense of the position by their words, for on his annual

visitation at S�o Paulo he spoke in public to the colonists against their slave raids, when a shot fired from the

meeting ended his speech. [18] The inhabitants then signified to him that, sooner than give up what seemed to

them a justifiable and honest means of life, they would be debaptized. How they proposed to debaptize

themselves is not related, but perhaps after the fashion of the Guaran�sby sand, hot water, and scraping

with a shell; though why the tongue should be thus scarified seems doubtful, for no sect of Christians that is

known exacts that people at that sacrament should put out their tongues, and even baptism does little or

nothing to increase the power of scandal inherent both in those who have been and those who never were

About this time (1630) the poor Jesuits were much tormented by the return to paganism of their Indians, and

most especially by a hideous dwarf who set himself up as a god, and found a host of worshippers. Good

Father Charlevoix thinks that ce petitmonstre, [19] despairing of being thought a man, had no resource but

to give out he was a god, and remarks that, as even more hideous gods have been adored, it is not surprising

that the Indians took him at his word. When stripped of the somewhat strange phraseology of the simple

Jesuit, there is nothing really shocking in the incident. People in general, in making gods, endue them with

their own least admirable attributes, and logically these poor Indians but followed out the general scheme.

But in the midst of heresies and dwarfgods, with the Paulistas almost always in the field, a man arose who

was to lead the Jesuits and their neophytes out of Guayr� and settle them securely below the cataract in the

Misiones of Paraguay. Born probably late in the sixteenth century in Spain, Antonio Ruiz de Montoya was

amongst the first of the Jesuit Fathers who came to Paraguay. In 1612 we find him recently arrived from

Spain; [20] sent up to the province of Guayr� to the assistance of Fathers Maceta and Cataldino. For thirty

years, [21] as he himself informs us in his book, he remained in Paraguay, and in his own pathetic words he

tells us how most of his life was spent. 'I have lived,' he says, 'all through the period of thirty years in

Paraguay, as in the desert searching for wild beaststhat is, for savage Indianscrossing wild countries,

traversing mountain chains, in order to find Indians and bring them to the true sheepfold of the Holy Church

and to the service of His Majesty. [22] With my companions I established thirteen reductions or townships in

the wilds, and this I did with great anxiety, in hunger, nakedness, and frequent peril of my life. And all these

years I passed far from my brother Spaniards have made me almost a rustic and ignorant of the polished

language of the Court.' Travelling as he did continually, few knew the country from Guayr� to Yapey� [23]

so well as he; he tells us that for 'all travelling equipment' he took a hammock, and a little mandioca flour,

that he usually travelled on foot with either sandals or bare feet, and that for eight or nine years he never once

About the year 161112 we find him charged with a mission to the Provincial at Asuncion to disabuse him of

a report which had been carried there that the Jesuits of Guayr� were garnering in no fruit from all their

labours in the wilds. The rumour had been so much repeated that the superiors in Asuncion were on the point

of calling back the missionaries and giving up all hope. Montoya, accompanied by six Indians, set out upon

the journey, which by land today is enough to appal the boldest traveller. Walking along, he found himself

about the middle of his way alone, his Indians having loitered in the rear. Night caught him in the forests, and

a storm came on. He passed the night at the foot of a large tree, hungry and wet, and, waking in the morning,

found himself so crippled with arthritic pains as to be obliged to continue his journey on his hands and knees.

Alone and helpless, he dragged himself to a place called Maracay�, and, failing to obtain a canoe, went on

another league, and there lay down to die, his leg being swelled enormously with the rheumatic pains. Then,

as he says himself, he prayed to San Ignacio, telling him that from a sentiment of obedience he had set out

upon the journey through the waste. Nothing could have been better, for the saint (who must have seen him

all the time), flattered, perhaps, that his own chief virtue had been the cause of so much pain, promptly healed

him and restored his leg to its usual size, and Montoya went on his way rejoicing to Asuncion. The Provincial

heard and was disabused, but was unable to send a single man to help, and poor Montoya set off again back

Again, in 1614, we find him in Asuncion combating calumnies spread by the Spanish settlers against the

Jesuits. In the same year (as he informs us [24]) he was witness in the Reduction of Loreto of a strange

circumstance. 'An Indian,' he says, 'of intelligence and pious conduct called me to administer the last

Sacraments, and to confess him before he died, and this I did. As there seemed little hope of his recovery, and

pressing business called me away, I quitted him after having given orders for his burial. He died in a short

timeat least, all those who were with him had no doubt of this; on my return I found the man whom I had

charged to stay beside the Indian till his death preparing for his funeral. Toward midday they came to tell

me that the dead man had come to life, and wished to speak to me. I ran there, and found him with a cheerful

face in the middle of a crowd of Indians. I asked him what had happened since I last saw him, and he

answered me that the instant that I quitted him his soul had taken its departure from his body; then, at a point

which he thought near to his hammock, a devil had appeared, who said to him, "You are my prey," and that

he answered it could not be, for he had confessed himself to the best of his ability, and had received the holy

Viaticum before his death; that the devil had sustained that his confession had been incomplete, and that he

had forgotten to confess that twice he had been drunk, to which he answered that it was an oversight, and he

hoped that God would not remember it. Then, on the devil sustaining that he had committed a sacrilege, St.

Peter had appeared, followed by angels, and driven off the fiend. I asked him how he had known St. Peter,

and he replied by describing him, though he had never seen an image of the saint. "The saint," he said,

"covered me with his mantle, and I felt myself instantly carried through the air. First I perceived a lovely

landscape, and further on a great city, from which a shining light appeared. Then the Apostle and the angels

stopped, and the first said to me, 'This is the city of the Lord; we live here with Him, but the time of your

entry is not yet. It is written that your soul shall once more join your body, and in three days you must appear

'I,' says Montoya, 'understood by the last words of St. Peter that the man had to die in three days, and I asked

what he thought himself. "I think," said he, "that next Sunday they will carry my body to the church, and I am

certain that I only returned to life in order to exhort my relatives and my friends to listen to your

instructions." . . . When Sunday came he made his general confession, [25] admitted the two sins the devil

had reproached him with, exhorted all to live a Christian life, and a few moments afterwards quietly gave up

This is the sole occasion on which Padre Ruiz Montoya even remotely touches the field of miracles, as he in

general relies upon himself, his knowledge of the world, and on his patience, which must have been almost

North British in its quality, if he acted up to his own favourite maxim of 'by returning thanks for injuries is

In 1623 we find him praying Father Cataldino to let him accompany the expedition to Itiranbaru, a mountain

wooded to the summit, in which lived several wild tribes. There he so worked upon the Indians as to establish

them in a reduction under the title of St. Francis Xavier, [27] and left the mountain, which had been a haunt

of savages, as Padre del Techo says in his curious work on Paraguay, 'all at the service of the Lord.'

In 1623, whilst preaching, he was suddenly assailed by hostile Indians, and seven of his Indians pierced with

arrows at his feet. Undoubtedly, he must have been killed had not an Indian taken his hat and cloak, and run

into the middle of the enemy to distract the fire. In the confusion both the heroic Indian and Montoya

managed to escape, the latter getting into a canoe which, fortunately, was ready at the riverside. But in the

midst of all his occupations he had time to study natural history in the spirit of the time, as the following

description clearly shows: 'Amongst the other rarities of the land is an amphibious animal. . . . It is like a

sheep, with but the difference that its teeth and nails are like a tiger's, which animal it equals in ferocity. The

Indians never look on it without terror, and when it sallies from the marshes where it lives (which it does

ordinarily in troops), they have no other chance of escape but to climb up a tree, and even then sometimes are

not in safety, for this terrible creature sometimes uproots the tree, or sometimes stays on guard until the

Indian falls into its jaws.' Thus far Montoya; but Charlevoix informs us that, en langue Guaranie, it is known

as the 'ao', and rather tamely adds, 'When one of these animals is slain, the people make a jacket of its skin.'

Again, Montoya tells us of the horse on which the venerable Padre Roque used to ride, which, when he died,

refused all food, and wept perpetually, two streams of water running from its eyes. It never allowed an Indian

to mount it after its master's death, and finally expired, close to his grave, of grief. A kindly, scholarly,

intrepid priest, well skilled in knowledge of the world, and not without some tincture of studies in science, as

the aboverelated anecdotes reveal to us. No doubt the Indians loved him far and wide, and his superiors

stood in some little awe of him, as those in office often do of their subordinates when they show that capacity

In 1627 Montoya was made head of the missions in Guayr�, which opened up to him the opportunity of

showing what kind of man he was. In this year the Spaniards of Villa Rica, the nearest town in Paraguay to

the reductions in Guayr�, sent out an expedition to chastize some Indians who had insulted a chief called

Tayaoba, whom Montoya had baptized. This was the pretext for the expedition, but Montoya knew well that

the real object was to hunt for slaves. He brought before the Governor the edict of the King of Spain

forbidding any war to be made upon the Indians without sufficient cause. All was in vain, and the expedition

left Villa Rica and plunged into the wilds. Montoya, sore against the Governor's desire, went with the

expedition, taking with him Padre Salazar and some wellarmed Indians. It was lucky for the Spaniards that

he was there, for on the second day a flight of arrows burst from a wood and wounded many of them. The

captain of the expedition ordered a retreat, which, situated as they were, exposed on all sides to the fire of an

enemy whom they could not see, must have proved fatal. Montoya counselled throwing up earthworks before

some huts which stood upon the edge of the woods in which the Indians were; this done, he sent a messenger

to Villa Rica for reinforcements. Even behind the earthworks the Spaniards were hard pressed; no one could

show himself without being pierced by an arrow. The number of the Indians daily increased, till on the third

day they numbered about four thousand, and seemed likely to advance upon the huts. The Spanish captain

ordered a rally, and the neophytes wished to decamp, taking Montoya with them, and then gain the shelter of

the woods. This he would not allow, and, charging with the soldiers, put the Indians to flight. The Spaniards,

far from being grateful for their lives, seeing their hopes of making prisoners had vanished, wished to lay

hands upon the Indians whom Montoya had brought, and who had fought beside them in the recent fray.

Hearing that in the morning the Spanish soldiers would attack his neophytes, Montoya sent them off by night,

and in the morning, when the Spanish captain found him and the other priest alone, he said, 'Thinking you

had no other use for the Indians, I advised them to return.' The captain had the grace to say nothing but,

'Then, you gave them good advice, my father.' The two priests waited patiently till the soldiers had retired,

and then sent for their Indians and quietly went home. Thus it appears that at necessity Padre Montoya was a

In 1628 Montoya seems to have met for the first time Padre Diaz Ta�o, who afterwards was his companion

both in the retreat from Guayr� down the Paran� and in his mission to the King. No matter whether a man

make his career with Indians in the wilds of Paraguay or amongst the socalled reasoning people in more

sophisticated lands, if he once show himself superior to the ordinary run of men, there is something of an

invidious character certain to be attributed to him by those who think that genius is the worst attribute that

man can have. This, Montoya did not escape from amongst the Spaniards, but the Indians, at least, were less

envious, being perhaps less educated, for they believed that the soul of one of their caciques, [28] known in

his life as Quaratici, had entered into him. The rumour reached at last a chief called Guiravera, known to the

Spaniards as the 'Exterminator' from his cruelty, who, hearing that the soul of his late rival had entered into

Montoya, came to see him at the head of a large retinue of people of his tribe. Montoya and Maceta were at

Villa Rica, and on the chief's approach they happened to be seated in the plaza of the town. As he approached

them, followed by his men, and with a threatening air, they remained seated, merely motioning him to take a

seat upon a bench. This he did, after making one of his men cover the seat with a tigerskin and stand behind

on guard. What passed between them, most unluckily, Montoya has not set down. What he has told us only

makes us wish for more, for it appears that after the usual salutations Guiravera refused to speak, and getting

up walked about the town, silently looking at everything. But, as it ever happens, even Montoya was no

exception to the general run of historywriters, who usually are occupied alone with facts which seem to

them important at the time, forgetting that posterity (for whom they write) can judge of the result as well as

they themselves, but thirst for details to complete the chain betwixt them and their predecessors. One thing is

set down in extensonot by Montoya, but by another Jesuitthat is, the sermon which Montoya preached

to bring the chief into the fold. Considered as a sermon it does not seem out of the common way, and judged

by its results was futile at the time, for the chief answered coldly that he would think the matter over, and

then retired into the woods. But the seed thus sown in Villa Rica was to bear fruit, for in a year the chief,

either tired of his ancestral gods or having pondered on the sermon, came into the fold and was baptized as

An irruption [29] of the Mamelucos called Father Montoya from baptizing Indians and recovering their souls

to the more prosaic, if as useful, task of saving their bodies, which he did at the immediate peril of his own.

The Mamelucos had appeared (1628) before the Reduction of Encarnacion, and many of the Indians had

already taken refuge in the woods. Those who remained were like a flock of sheep without a shepherd, and

knew not what to do. Padre Montoya hastened to the spot, and called on every Christian to take up arms.

Under the circumstances he undoubtedly was right; still, in reading history one is puzzled to observe how

often and in how many different countries Christians have to resort to arms. But before proceeding to

extremities, Montoya sent out Fathers Mendoza and Domenecchi with some of the principal inhabitants of

the reduction to parley with the Mamelucos, who, under their celebrated leader Antonio Raposo, were

encamped outside the place. Upon arriving within range of the Paulista camp they were greeted with a

shower of balls and arrows, which killed several of the Indians and wounded Father Mendoza in the foot. But

when, in spite of his wound, the Jesuit advanced towards the camp and insisted on speaking with the leader,

the Mamelucos were so struck with his courage that they gave up to him several of the Indians whom they

had taken prisoners upon the previous day. Next day Father Montoya, encouraged by the unhopedfor

success of Father Mendoza, went out himself, and, facing the Paulistas, somewhat imprudently threatened

them with the wrath of Heaven and the King if they did not retire. The wrath of Heaven is often somewhat

capricious in its action, and the King of Spain, although as wrathful as he had been an Emperor, was too far

away to inspire much terror in his subjects on the Paran�. So that the Paulista treated the wrath of both their

Majesties as qualities which he could well neglect, and for sole answer ordered his men to march upon the

town. But, whether owing to their hard hearts having been touched by the good Father's eloquence, or the fact

that the neophytes were under arms, when the Paulistas arrived close to the town they altered their intentions

and filed off into the woods. Profiting by the respite from hostilities, Montoya, in conjunction with Padre

Diaz Ta�o and a Father bearing the somewhat curious name of Padre Justo Vansurk Mansilla, [30] devoted

all his attention for the time to the Mission of Santa Maria la Mayor, which was the most flourishing of all the

missions of the time, and which today still shows the greatest remnants of the Jesuits' work, both in regard

to architecture and the remains of Indian population still settled on the old mission lands. But even there the

Jesuits did not escape without their trials, for it appears [31] that a quantity of new proselytes arrived with

women, whom the good Fathers stigmatized as 'concubines', and whom the ignorant Indians in the innocence

of their hearts looked on as wives. The order being given to dismiss these concubines (or wives), a few

submitted; but the rest, leaving the mission, started cultivating a tract of land in the vicinity.

Then the good Fathers, with Montoya at their head, hit on a stroke of genius. Taking the opportunity when

the seceding Indians were away gathering their crops, they set fire to their houses and carried off the children

and the women, [32] back to the mission. The recalcitrants appeared next day at Santa Maria la Mayor, and

were received again into the bosom of the Church. Heresy, also, now and then made its appearance, for two

rascals, having built two temples upon two hills, transported to them the skeletons of two magicians long

since dead, and the fickle people left the churches empty, and went to worship at the magicians' shrines. But

in this season of sorrow and of care, and whilst the churches in the Mission of Encarnacion were left deserted,

Montoya once again showed his determination, and put things right. Not being able to cope alone with the

heathen, Father Diaz Ta�o went to Guayr�, and induced Montoya (still the superior of the reductions in that

province) to give his aid. He came, and, having armed some of the faithful, at dead of night attacked the

In 1631 Montoya and others came in the forests of Guayr� upon the wild Caaguas. These they strove hard to

civilize, but, after labouring long, with all their eloquence were able to induce only eighteen to return with

them to the Encarnacion. It was 'with difficulty that they were able to give them a sufficient knowledge of the

mysteries of our faith to be able to bestow the rite of baptism.' It may be that the Caaguas, not having much to

occupy their minds, approached the mysteries of our faith in more receptive attitudes than is attained by those

whose minds are full. But, anyhow, Montoya, with true prudence, deferred their baptism till just before their

death, for a few months of life outside the forests proved fatal to them all. Faith is a wondrous thing, and able

to move most things, even commonsense. One wonders, though, why, when the Jesuits learned from

experience that the poor Indians invariably died when exposed to the burning sun upon the plains, they

continued in their fatal efforts to inflict baptism on the unoffending people of the woods. If it were necessary,

it surely might have taken place in their own homes, and the patients then might have been left to chance, to

In 1631 the Mamelucos broke into the province of Guayr�. All was confusion, and Montoya sent Father Diaz

Ta�o to Asuncion to beg the Governor, Don Luis de Cespedes, to send them help. He answered that he could

do nothing, and thus by leaving the whole territory of Guayr� without defence lost a rich province to the

Crown of Spain. Though at the time (1631) Portugal and Spain were united, yet in the Indies their subjects

were at war, and though in Europe Spain was the stronger of the two, in America the Portuguese conquered

about that time rich provinces, which today form part of the quondam Empire of Brazil.

Upon the failure of Don Luis de Cespedes to render help, Padre Diaz Ta�o was despatched to Charcas [33] to

lay the matter before the Audiencia Real (the High Court of the Indies). The frequent journeys and diplomatic

negotiations in which the Jesuits of Paraguay were engaged rendered them far more apt to manage business

than members of the other Orders in America. Whilst in Guayr� all was confusion, and the Paulistas swept

through the land ruining everything, upon the Uruguay things prospered, and Padre Romero founded two new

reductions (1631), known as San Carlos and Apostoles; he also laid the foundation of that territory in which

the persecuted neophytes of Guayr� were soon to find a safe retreat. Father Diaz Ta�o by this time had

returned from Charcas with a decree of the High Court, declaring the action of Don Luis de Cespedes in

failing to protect Guayr� against the Mamelucos prejudicial to the interests of the King; but as neither he nor

the High Court of Charcas possessed any power by means of which to stimulate the Governor to greater zeal,

the decree was useless, and Ta�o and Ruiz Montoya found themselves summoned hastily to meet a new

attack. But before they arrived the missions, both of San Francisco Xavier and of San Jos�, had been

destroyed. As there were still three reductions undestroyed, Montoya, as Provincial of Guayr�, called all the

Jesuits of the province to deliberate as to their chance of making a defence. The debate ran high; some of the

priests wished that the neophytes should fight to the end; others, more sensible, pointed out that the illarmed

and quite untrained militia of the missions could do nothing with their bows and arrows against the wellled

and welldisciplined Paulistas all armed with guns. [34] Padre Truxillo gave it as his opinion that it would be

more prudent to transport the Indians to a place of safety, and pointed out that near the cataract of Guayr�

they would be able to cross the river and place it between themselves and the Paulistas in case of an attack.

This advice seemed prudent to the rest, and Father Truxillo set out to make his preparation for the march.

Few European travellers even today have visited the great cataract known as El Salto de Guayr�, or in

Portuguese as Sete Quedas. Bourgade la Dardye [35] has described it in his book on Paraguay. Situated as it

is in the midst of almost impenetrable forests, it has not even now been properly placed upon the map.

Bourgade la Dardye inclines to think he was the first to visit it since the expedition sent by the elder Lopez,

President of Paraguay, under Lieutenant Patino in 1861. Before that time it had been left unvisited since

1788, when the Boundary Commissioners sent to determine the dividing line between the Spanish and

Portuguese possessions camped near it for a week. Felix de Azara writes about it in his 'Historia del

Paraguay', [36] but he does little more than reproduce the account given by the Boundary Commissioners. He

places it in 241L 4' 27" lat., and refers to it as 'a tremendous precipice of water [37] worthy of Homer or of

Virgil's pen.' He says the waters do not fall vertically as from a balcony or window (como por un balcon �

ventana), but by an inclined plane at an inclination of about fifty degrees. The river close to the top of the

falls is about four thousand nine hundred Castilian yards in breadth, and suddenly narrows to about seventy

yards, and rushes over the fall with such terrific violence as if it wished to 'displace the centre of the earth,

and cause thus the nutation which astronomers have observed in the earth's axis.' The dew or vapour which

rises from the fall is seen in the shape of a column from many miles away, and on it hangs a perpetual

rainbow, which trembles as the earth seems to tremble under one's feet. 'The noise,' he says, 'is heard full six

leagues off, and in the neighbourhood neither bird nor beast is found.' In Azara's time the journey was not too

pleasant, for he says: 'He who wishes to see this fall must cross the desert for thirty leagues from the town of

Curuguaty to the river Guatimi. There he must choose trees to construct canoes. In these he must embark all

those who go with him, arms and provisions, and besides, where he embarks, leave an armed escort to secure

his base of supplies from the wild Indians' attack. In the canoes he then must navigate the Guatimi for thirty

leagues until it joins the Paran�, and always with much care, for in the woods upon its banks are Indians who

give no quarter. . . . [38] Then there remain three leagues to sail upon the Paran�, then one can reach the falls

either in the canoes or struggling along the woods which fringe the river's bank.'

Azara was, perhaps, of all the travellers of the last century, the man who above all things shines in accuracy,

and in point of fact his description of the cataract is the best we have up to the present time. Bourgade la

Dardye tells us that not far above the cataract the Paran� expands into a lake almost five miles in breadth, and

from the lake the river issues in two great arms, which have forced their way through the mountains known as

Dr. Bourgade la Dardye seems to think the circular eddies found in the whirls are the most curious features of

the falls. He describes them thus: 'They flow in falls varying from fifty to sixty feet in depth; these circular

eddies, which are quite independent of one another, range along an arc of about two miles in its stretch. They

are detached like giant caldrons yawning unexpectedly at one's feet, in which the flood seethes with

incredible fury; every one of these has opened for itself a narrow orifice in the rock, through which like a

stone from a sling the water is hurled into the central whirlpool. The width of these outlets rarely exceeds

fifteen yards, but their depth cannot be estimated. They all empty themselves into one immense central

chamber about two hundred feet wide, rushing into it with astounding velocity. . . . A more imposing

spectacle can scarcely be conceived, and I doubt whether abysses such as these exist elsewhere in the world.'

He places the falls in latitude 24� 2' 59", but corrects the longitude given by Azara as 56� 55' west of Paris to

58� 18' 8"that is, 53� 57' 53" west from Greenwich, which certainly has some importance in fixing the

But neither Azara nor the French traveller, with their yards and feet, their longitude and latitude, and the rest,

give an idea of the grandeur of the place. Buried in the primeval forests, forgotten by the world, known to the

wandering Indians who give no quarter (any more today than in Azara's time), the giant cataract is a lost

wonder of the world. In the ruined missions on the Paran�, two hundred miles away, I have heard the Indians

talk of it with awe. They told how through the woods tangled with undergrowth, matted together with lianas,

they had hewed a path. Monkeys and parrots chattered at them, and a white miasmatic vapour hung over trees

and lakes, burying the clearings in its wreaths, and lifting only at midday, to close again upon the woods at

night. They talked of alligators, jaguars, the giant anteater, and the mysterious bird known to them as the

'ipetat�', which in its tail carries a burning fire. In the recesses of the thickets demons lurked, and wild

Caaguas, who with a blowpipe and a poisoned arrow slew you and your horse, themselves unseen. Pools

covered with Victoria regia; masses of red and yellow flowers upon the trees, the trees themselves gigantic,

and the moss which floated from their branches long as a spear; the voyage in canoes, whirled like a cork

upon the rapids; lastly the falls themselves, and how they, awestricken at the sight, fell prostrate and

promised many candles to the Virgin and the saints on their return, they talked of into the watches of the

Somehow, I like those countries which, as the province of Guayr� and Paraguay, appear to have no future,

and of which the charm is in the past. It pleases me to think that the sharp business men of times gone by,

patting their stomachs (the prison of their brain), predicted great advancement, and were all deceived. For

then it seems as if the prognostications of today's schemes may also fail, and countries which they have

doomed to progress still remain as is Guayr�, their towns deserted, with but the broken spire of some old

church emerging from the verdure of the tropics, as the St. Paul's Rocks rise sheer out of the sea. If there is

charm in the unknown, there is at least as great a charm in the forgotten, and the Salto de Guayr� is one of the

most forgotten corners of the earth. To this wild place Father Mendoza proposed to lead the Indians from the

Reductions of San Jos� and San Francisco Xavier, and then unite with them any of the fugitives he could

assemble from those reductions which had been destroyed. But even the doglike patience of the Indians was

at an end, and they preferred to die or be led captives rather than run the chances of escape in such a solitary

place. In their despair, and placed between the Paulistas and the fear of emigration, the neophytes turned, as

even more civilized people than themselves will turn, on their best friends, and held the Jesuits responsible

for all their woes. Two Indian women, wives of caciques, having been taken by the Paulistas, the Indians

broke into the church where a Jesuit (Padre Salazar) was officiating, and interrupted him during the Mass

with the most bitter insults. One of the Indians menaced him with a lance, another with an arrow, whilst a

third tried to snatch the chalice from his hands. He escaped, and ran, holding the chalice, out into the woods,

followed by two little Indian boys. Wandering about, he fell in with the other Jesuits, all like himself outcasts,

without a church, and almost deserted by the Indians. Padre Ruiz Montoya alone possessed a shadow of

authority, and he advised the outcasts with the remnant of their flocks to retire into the woods, and sow a crop

of maize for food, whilst he endeavoured to get help from Paraguay. Hardly was this done, when news was

brought him which made him alter all his plans. Two messengers came to inform him that an army of

Paulistas was marching on Villa Rica, and that a strong detachment of them was advancing from the south.

Then Padre Montoya took a supreme resolve, and ordered the evacuation of the two principal reductions (San

Ignacio and Loreto) which yet remained intact. They were the first which had been founded in Guayr�, and

were as important as any of the Spanish towns in Paraguay. The churches, all the Jesuit writers, as Montoya,

Charlevoix, Mastrilli, and Lozano, are agreed, were finer than any in the land. The Indians were, according to

Montoya, far better Christians than the inhabitants of the Spanish settlements, and their faith and innocence

were above all praise. They cultivated cotton and had large herds of cattle, so that the most bitter enemies of

the Jesuits must allow that much had been accomplished in the short space of twoandtwenty years. In 1609

the Jesuits came to Guayr�, and found it absolutely untouched; and when in 1631 they left it, it was upon the

road to become one of the most flourishing American provinces of the Spanish throne. The other missionaries

imagined that nothing would persuade the Indians to depart from their homes, where for so many years they

had been happy; but after Montoya explained to them his plans, they all assented to them as with a single

The plan by means of which the Jesuit Moses led his sheep out of the wilderness of Guayr� was most

remarkable. The river Paran� forms a great artery between Brazil and Paraguay; upon each side of it a

network of rivers disembogue. The Paranapan�, on which most of the missions of Guayr� were situated,

flows from the east, and falls into the Paran�, not much more than fifty miles above the cataract. After the last

of the onceflourishing six Jesuit reductions had been evacuated at the orders of Montoya, he collected all the

boats, rafts, and canoes, and after much persuasion got all the Indians persuaded to follow him to seek for

safer habitations lower down the Paran�. The population of the six reductions has been estimated at about one

hundred thousand souls; but of these, during the years of 1629 and 1630, thousands had been led captive to

S�o Paulo, and thousands had dispersed into the woods. Still, assembled on the banks of the Paranapan�,

there was a multitude of Indians of every sex and age. Fortunately or unfortunately, no record by an

eyewitness exists, [39] except that written by Montoya, and he is modest to a fault about all details, and

absolutely silent as to the part he played himself. He tells us that at the startingpoint were gathered two

thousand five hundred families, and this in spite of the dispersions and the efforts made by the Spanish

settlers in the town of Ciudad Real, [40] who feared, with cause, to be exposed to the full fury of the Paulistas

without allies. It appears the Indians were in a state of spiritual exaltation, for some young men having

remarked the Jesuits were packing up a Christ and an image of the Blessed Virgin, which in happier times

had been miraculous, they declared that to affront exile, and even death, in such good company was a

Montoya, in opposition to the modern style, tries to shift the burden of the praise on to the shoulders of the

Provincial, Padre Francisco Lopez Truxillo, [41] but with indifferent success. This matter of bearing your

own praise will require regulation in the future, when an advance of civilization has opened people's eyes to

the perception that praise is just as disagreeable to the sufferer as is blame. The sentinel whom they had

placed to warn them of the enemy's approach gave the alarm. Montoya sent at once to Ciudad Real for help,

but the Spanish settlers were too hard pressed themselves to give assistance. Nothing remained but to make a

portage of all their rafts, boats, and canoes, and then to reembark and sail down the Paran� out of the reach

of the Paulistas. Montoya passed in review his boats, and found he had seven hundred, and that twelve

thousand people had embarked with him on leaving the Paranapan�. When the Paulistas found the Jesuits had

evacuated all their towns, they burnt the churches, on the principle, perhaps, that, the nests once pulled down,

the rooks would not return. They turned the Jesuit cells into barracks for themselves, taking, as Montoya says

with horror, 'infamous women' into those chaste abodes, where never woman had passed through the doors.

The Paulistas then entered into a rigorous examination [42] of the Jesuits' private lives, hoping to find some

scandal to bring against them. Especially they questioned the Indian women, giving them presents to discover

everything they knew. All was in vain, the discipline of the Order, or the strict conscientiousness of the

individual members of it, not having given scandal any hold. [43] The most difficult part of the great exodus

was now to come. The rapids and the cataracts of the Paran� extend to nearly ninety miles, and the whole

country is a maze of tangled forest interspersed with rocks. No paths exist, the place is desert, and over the

dank mass of vegetation the moisture from the clouds of vapour thrown up by the falling water descends in

neverending rain. [44] In order to endeavour to save the trouble of reconstructing new rafts and canoes at

the bottom of the cataract, Montoya launched three hundred empty boats (sending an Indian in advance) to

see if any of them would arrive safely at the bottom of the falls. Not one escaped; and so the pilgrimage

began, almost without provisions and without arms, in the middle of a country quite uncultivated, and where

game was scarce. [45] To make things worse, intelligence was brought that, a few miles below the beginning

of the falls, the Spaniards of Guayr� had built a wooden fort, surrounded with a strong stockade, hoping to

intercept the retreating Indians, and make slaves of any who might fall into their hands. Montoya himself,

dressed as an Indian, went out to observe the enemy, and on his return the whole immense assemblage

silently plunged into the woods, leaving so little traces of its passage that the Spaniards in the fort were still

Each Indian had to take his bundle on his back; even the children carried bundles in proportion to their

strength. The missionaries carried what was held most sacred, as altarplate and images of saints. In front a

band of men armed with mach�tes (caneknives) opened the way through the dense woods and pathless

jungle of the bank; and as they marched along, Montoya says they sang hymns which the Jesuits had taught

them, and at the sound of them fugitives who had been hiding in the woods came out and joined their march.

Especially those from the outstation of Tayaoba joined them; their priest, Pedro de Espinosa, had met his

death 'with a good chance of his eternal welfare,' as Montoya says. [46] But after the second day the hymns

no longer sounded through the woods, nor did they play upon the harps and other instruments, whose strings

being all broken and the wood unglued, 'they left them on the rocks, being too sad to look at them.' All

through the weary journey Montoya seems never once to have despaired, and sets down in his book the

adventures of each separate day, never forgetting to chronicle anything strange or pathetic as it occurred to

him. On the fourth day he sent off Fathers Diego, Nicolas Hennerio, and Mansilla into the province of Itatines

to found a mission there, acting upon orders which had just reached him from the Provincial of the Order

shortly before he had started from Guayr�. They took with them 'bells, images, and everything suitable for the

foundation of a mission'; but the first two were martyred by the wild Indians, and the third just fled in time to

save his life. It took the fugitive Indians eight weary days of marching to reach the lower end of the cataract,

where once again the Paran� was navigable. On their arrival they hoped to find provisions and more boats;

but none were there, their own stores were almost done, and the people too exhausted to march on. Fever

broke out, and many of them died; and others, lost in the forests, without a guide, wandered about till death

released them from their march. A weaker man than Padre Montoya might have despaired of ever issuing

from the woods. However, he set the Indians to work to make canoes, and others [47] to cultivate patches of

maize for food, working himself alternately with axe and hoe to give example to the neophytes. Others, again,

cut down the enormous canes, which in that region grew to fifty feet in height, to make them into rafts.

So, after a considerable time, all was in readiness for a new start, and luckily provisions from the reductions

on the Paran� arrived. So they embarked again, and on the journey a raft in which a woman and two children

were sitting upset, to Montoya's agony, as he knew that 'in that river there are fish that the people call

culebras, [48] which have been seen to swallow men entire, and throw them out again with all their bones

broken as if it had been done with stones.' He says: 'I confess I suffered infinitely, and, turning my eyes to

heaven, I blamed my sins as having been the cause of so much misery, and said, "O Lord, is it possible that

for this Thou hast brought these people out of their country, that my eyes should endure the spectacle of so

much misery, and my heart break at so much suffering, and then to let them die devoured by savage fish!"' As

the good man was praying, the Indian woman's head appeared above the water, and Montoya himself, aided

by Indians, drew her and the children in safety to the land. But his trials were not at an end, for many of the

hastily constructed rafts and canoes sank before his eyes, and the mortality of Indians was great. Eventually

they found a temporary refuge in the Reduction of the Nativity upon the Acaray, and at Santa Maria la Mayor

upon the Iguaz�. Then famine raged, and the arrival of so many people increased the scarcity, so that six

hundred of the new arrivals died in one reduction, and five hundred in the next. At last the scarcity became so

great that the poor Indians had to roam about the forests to gather fruit, and many of them died in the recesses

Seeing no hopes of saving the remainder, Montoya led them further on to the banks of a little river called the

Jubaburr�s, [49] and there he once again founded two reductions, which he named Loreto and San Ignacio,

after the two the Mamelucos had destroyed. He bought ten thousand head of cattle out of the money the King

allowed to the Jesuits of Guayr�, and from the sale of some few objects saved from the general destruction of

the towns, and settled down his Indians, who in Guayr� had been all agriculturists, to a pastoral life. Thus did

he bring successfully nearly twelve thousand people a distance of about five hundred miles through desert

country, and down a river broken in all its course by rapids, landing them far from their enemies in a safe

haven at the last. Most commonly the world forgets or never knows its greatest men, while its lardheaded

fools, who in their lives perhaps have been the toys of fortune, sleep in their honoured graves, their memory

living in the page of history, preserved like grapes in aspic by writers suetheaded as themselves. But though

this Hegira was the most stirring episode of Montoya's life, he yet had work to do, and in the province of

diplomacy rendered as great, or even greater, services to the Indians, whom he loved better than himself, as in

[49] The name of this river seems to have passed through the machine of some medieval typewriter, for it is

like no name in any language, and Montoya knew Guaran� well, having written much in that language.

[1] Some of the Spanish writers refer to Filds as Padre Tom Filds. His real name was Fields, and he was a

[2] The Paulistas were the inhabitants of the Portuguese (now Brazilian) town of Sao Paulo. Azara, who hated

the Jesuits (his brother, Don Nicolas de Azara, having been concerned in their expulsion), says that fear of the

Paulistas contributed to the success of the Jesuits with the Indians. Dean Funes ('Historia del Paraguay', etc.)

[3] There was, however, a royal Order (cedula real) which applied to all America, which especially prohibited

Spaniards from living in the Indian towns, and, moreover, provided that even for purposes of trade no

[4] 'Histoire Politique et Philosophique des Indes', vol. i., p. 289 (Gen�ve, 1780).

[5] Cr�tineau Joly, 'Histoire Religieuse, Politique et Litt�raire de la Compagnie de J�sus', vol. iii., cap. v., p.

[6] 'Historia General de los hechos de los Castellanos en las Islas y tierra firme del Mar Oceano', decad. v.,

[7] 'Historia General de los hechos de los Castellanos en las Islas y tierra firme del Mar Oceano', decad. v.,

[8] 'Inventarios de los bienes hallados � la Expulsion de los Jesuitas' (Madrid, 1872).

[10] The word in Brazil is used to designate a halfbreed, but the etymology seems unknown.

[11] 'Me he de salvar a pesar de Dios, porque para salvarse el hombre no ha menester mas que creer' (Ruiz

Montoya, 'Conquista Espiritual'). Montoya adds with a touch of humour quite in Cervantes' vein: 'Este, sabe

ya por experiencia la falsedad de su doctrina, porque le mataron de tres balazos, sin confesion.'

[12] The Mamelucos sometimes pushed their forays right through Paraguay into the district of the Moxos,

and Padre Patricio Fernandez, in his curious 'Relacion de los Indios Chiquitos' (Madrid, 1726), relates their

adventures in that fardistant district, and the conflicts which the Indians, led by their priests and helped by

[16] An 'estero' is a tract of country covered by water to the depth of two or three feet. The bottom is usually

hard, but it is full of holes and hummocks. High pampa grass and reeds not infrequently obscure the view,

and clouds of insects make life miserable. If the tract extends to more than a day's journey, the night passed

on a dry hummock, holding one's horse and listening without a fire to the wild beasts, is likely to remain

present to one in afterlife, especially if alone; the only things that seem to link one to humanity are one's

horse and the familiar stars. Perhaps that is why Capella has always seemed to me in some sort my own

[17] This curious berry, about the size of a large damson, grows on a little shrub in sandy and rocky soils. It

has a thick yellow rind and several large seeds, and the property of being icy cold in the hottest weathera

true traveller's joy. Dr. de Bourgade de la Dardye, in his excellent book on Paraguay (the English edition

[21] 'Conquista Espiritual del Paraguay', Ruiz de Montoya, introductory chapter.

[22] This may either mean to the service of God or to the service of the King (Philip III.), for in the time of

Montoya 'Majesty' was used in addressing both the King of Spain and the King of Heaven.

[23] Yapey�, or Reyes, was the southernmost of the Jesuit reductions. It was situated upon the Uruguay in

[30] In Paraguay it was not unusual for foreign Jesuits to hispaniolize their names; thus, Smith became

Esmid. But it was more usual to add a Spanish name, as appears to have been the case with P. Vansurk

Mansilla. Father Manuel Querini, in his report to the King of Spain in 1750, mentions the names of Boxer,

Keiner, and Limp, with many other French, English, and German names, amongst those of priests at the

[32] It is certain that the Guaran�s, like many other Indians, were polygamists, and Xarque, in his 'Vida

Apostolica del P. Joseph Cataldino', thus explains the matter: 'El tener tanto numero de concubinas, no

solamente lo ocasiona su natural lascivo, sino tambien, el vicio de la embriaguez, pues teniendo tantas criadas

tenian con mas abundancia su cerveza y vino.' Thus Xarque seems to agree with the late Miss Mary Kingsley,

who in one of her books (though she says nothing about the 'natural lascivo' of the negroes of the West Coast

of Africa) seems to attribute the polygamy of the negroes to the difficulty a man experiences, in the countries

[33] Charcas is situated in what is now Bolivia, and was extremely inconvenient for all dwellers on the

eastern side of the Andes to reach. Whether this was a masterpiece of policy calculated to discourage

lawsuits, or whether it was merely due to Spanish incuriousness and maladministration, is a moot point.

[34] The Indians of the missions were not allowed to possess firearms at this period.

[35] 'Paraguay', Dr. E. de Bourgade la Dardye; English edition by George Philips junior (London, 1892). The

Indians call it Salto de Canandiy�, which, according to Azara, was the name of a 'cacique' whom the first

[37] 'Y es un espantoso despe�adero de agua', etc. ('Descripcion del Paraguay', tomo i., p. 39).

[39] At least, I have been unable to discover any other account by an eyewitness.

[40] This city was situated near the great falls of Guayr�, and was destroyed by the Paulistas, as well as the

[43] In all the books and pamphlets I have searched about the Jesuits in Paraguay, both friendly and

unfriendly to the Order, I have never found a charge of personal unchastity advanced against a Jesuit. In

[44] Azara, 'Descripcion e Historia del Paraguay', tomo i., p. 40: 'En las inmediaciones del Salto hay

proporcion para tomar las medidas geometricas que se quiera y metiendose por el bosque se puede reconocer

lo inferior del Salto, bien que para este es menester desnudare totalmente porque llueve mucho.'

[45] Azara records (book i.) the Indian fable that no living thing could exist near the cataract. Though this is

of course untrue, yet in most Paraguayan forests near water, game is both scarce and hard to find.

[47] Fathers Suarez, Contreras, and Espinosa were Montoya's lieutenants in this memorable retreat. It is

difficult to give the palm to the energy and courage of the four priests, or to the resignation and faith of the

[48] Culebra is the Spanish for a serpent. These fish may have been waterboas, or, again, as seems probable

[49] The name of this river seems to have passed through the machine of some medieval typewriter, for it is

like no name in any language, and Montoya knew Guaran� well, having written much in that language.

Spain and Portugal in South America Enmity between Brazilians and Argentines Expulsion of Jesuits

from Paraguay Struggles with the natives Father Mendoza killed Death of Father Montoya

IN THE PROVINCE of Guayr� the Spaniards who had looked with disfavour on the Jesuits, and had

enslaved the Indians when they were able, were in sore straits. The Mamelucos, finding no more Indians to

enslave, fell on the two towns of Villa Rica and Ciudad Real, destroyed them utterly, and forced the

inhabitants to flee for refuge into Paraguay. Thus Guayr� went the way of Matto Grosso and several other

provinces of Spain, and became Portuguese. Strangely enough, most of these losses happened when Spain

and Portugal were joined under one crown. At home the Spaniards and the Portuguese, however much they

detested one another, were forced to keep the peace. In America they were always at war, which ended

invariably to the detriment of Spain. [1] The strife begun by the Papal Bull of 1493, in which Pope Alexander

VI. divided the territories discovered and to be discovered between Portugal and Spain, went on, till bit by bit

Spain was stripped of the provinces of Matto Grosso, Rio Grande, and Guayr�, and found herself drawn into

the numerous disputes about the Colonia del Sacramento, which cost so much blood to both contending

Powers. Perhaps the most curious and interesting incident of the long struggle was the Three Years' War,

which began in 1750, after the marriage of Ferdinand VI. of Spain with Dona Barbara of Portugal. By the

treaty entered into at this marriage, seven of the most flourishing of the missions situated on the left bank of

the Uruguay were ceded to Portugal in exchange for La Colonia del Sacramento on the river Plate. The towns

resisted change of sovereignty, as Portugal to them was typified by the Paulistas, their most inveterate

enemies. The Marquis de Valdelirios in his curious despatches touches much upon this war, but perhaps the

best account is to be found in the curious memoir of the Irish Jesuit Father, Tadeo Hennis, [2] who was the

The ancient enmity of the two nations has been continued in their descendants, the Brazilians and the

Argentines and Uruguayans, and little by little Brazil is absorbing all the northern portion of the Republic of

Uruguay. After the retreat under Montoya down the Paran�, the Jesuit missions, especially in Paraguay and

what is now the province of Corrientes, for some time enjoyed a period of peace and of repose, and the

strange policy of the Jesuits was developed, and township after township arose amongst the Guaran�s

(163031). But there was still no rest for Ruiz Montoya, who was of those who rest but in the grave. In 1632,

at the instance of the Governor and magistrates of the township of Jerez, Montoya sent Fathers Jean

Ranconier and Mansilla to the north of Paraguay to found a mission amongst the Itatines, a forestdwelling

tribe. Their territory was marshy and the climate bad, and woods of indiarubbertrees covered all the land.

Fathers del Techo and Charlevoix both speak of the 'rebounding balls' with which they played, which, thrown

upon the ground, start up again as if they were filled with air. This is, perhaps, one of the first times that

indiarubber is mentioned, though in some places Jean de L�ry [3] seems to indicate he was acquainted with

The Jesuits found that to make progress was not easy with these Indians, who willingly enough listened to

their preaching, but refused to alter their social habits, to which the Jesuits ascribe the fact that even then their

numbers were diminishing. Like most of the Indians of America, they were polygamists, which custom in

their race operates differently to polygamy amongst the negroes: for whereas they seem to increase and

thrive, the Indians even at the conquest often tended to become extinct. When a headman amongst the Itatines

died, a number of his followers jumped down precipices to accompany him upon his journey to a better

world. This custom and polygamy gave much trouble to the Jesuits, but their most admirable patience and

knowledge of mankind helped them to overcome them by degrees. All was about to flourish in the mission,

when one Acosta, a Brazilian priest, appeared. Perhaps he was in league with the Paulistas, or perhaps was

jealous of the Jesuits, for he tried hard to lead a number of the Indians to S�o Paulo to show them (as he said)

The Itatines, either suspecting that Acosta's true law was false, or tired of his preaching, rose and killed him;

but the effect was bad, and there grew up amongst those infidels a coldness even towards the Jesuits

themselves. Had it not been for two miraculous events which happened opportunely, as such things should

happen if they are to be turned to good account, much harm might have been done. A chief, having cursed a

priest, was seized at once with a malignant ulcer in the throat, which shortly killed him. The Itatines did not

apparently think anything of the influence of the unhealthy climate in which they lived, and set the

But more was still to come. Another chief having so far forgotten himself as to jeer at a priest, a thunderbolt

fell so close to him that he was knocked senseless, and lay as dead. These two events confirmed the Jesuits'

power, and things began to flourish in their four new missions. But the Great Power, so careful of the

individual effort of His priests, seems to have been most unaccountably remiss of their success considered as

a whole. In the same year (1632) the Mamelucos appeared and ruined all the four missions, so that the efforts

In 1633 the first skirmish took place between the Bishop of Paraguay and the Jesuits. This skirmish little by

little grew into a war, kept up for more than a hundred years, and ended finally in the expulsion of the Jesuits

from Paraguay. The Governor, Don Luis de Cespedes, having called upon the Indians of the Jesuit missions

for personal service, a proceeding quite against both the King's orders and the Papal Bulls, the Bishop

thought the moment opportune to press for tithes. This, too, was equally forbidden both by a Bull and by an

order of the Council of the Indies. Padre Romero went to Asuncion and displayed his Bulls and his orders of

the Council, and the Governor withdrew his claims. The Bishop, after some opposition, withdrew likewise,

and the Provincial of the Order arrived at Asuncion, bringing with him an order from the King signifying that

the Indians of the reductions were to be left entirely to the Jesuits. So for the present the Jesuits scored a

victory, though in the future it was to cost them dear. But the Governor of Paraguay having returned

apparently to his design of exacting personal service from the Indians of the missions, the Provincial

checkmated him with a royal order from Philip IV. The order was addressed to the Viceroy of Peru, the

fourth Count of Chinchon. The missive, dated at Madrid in 1633, condemned in the strongest terms all

personal service (that is, forced labour) amongst the Indians, not only of the Jesuit missions, but of Peru and

Mexico. With a touching confidence in his own powers, and absolute right Divine, the wellmeaning King

added to his orders a paragraph commanding all to be done as he had ordered within six months. Strange to

find Philip IV., whom Velasquez has immortalized and shown us as he sat upon his horse ineffable, so far

away from the Museo del Prado, where alone he ever seems really to have lived. But foolish Governors and

Bishops were not the Jesuits' worst enemies in Paraguay. In 1634 the Provincial, Father Boroa, was

shipwrecked in a voyage up the Uruguay, and only saved by the devotion of his neophytes.

Sometimes the cruel treatment of the natives by the Spanish settlers was avenged upon the Jesuits. This was

the case with a band of Guapalaches, who, coming on Father Espinosa in a wood, attacked and massacred

him and all his Indians, and, having cut his body into pieces, left it for the wild beasts to eat. Upon another

occasion Father Mendoza fell into an ambuscade, from which he might have escaped had not his horse sunk

in a miry stream. Long he defended himself with an Indian shield, but at length was stretched upon the

ground and left for dead. During the night he revived, and dragged himself up to some rocks; but the Indians

in the morning, following up his trail, came on him praying in a loud voice. They told him that he served a

blind God, or at best a powerless God, as He did nothing to defend His servant; then, after torturing him

cruelly, they despatched him, and, taking out his heart, said: 'Let us see if his soul will take the road to

heaven.' These savages do not seem to have been genuinely interested in finding out what became of the soul

after the dissolution of the body, for they sat down and made a hearty meal of two young Indians who

accompanied the unlucky priest. But they had heard their victim say that when he baptized them it purified

their souls, and the last words of Father Mendoza had been to recommend his soul to God. I often wonder if

the Christians of today, their creed so firmly fixed by the martyrdoms of simple folk, who held their faith

without perhaps much reasoning on it, know what they owe to men like Father Christopher Mendoza, slain

by the Indians in the Paraguayan woods. Your ancient martyr, fallen out of fashion and forgotten by the

Christians of today, should have his homage done to him, if only by the chance writer, who in his studies for

some subject of no interest to the general world comes on his trail of blood; for martyrdom, no matter how

obscure, forgotten by the people of the faith for which the martyr suffered, is a slur not only on the faithful,

but on the faith itself. In 1636 occurred the second invasion of the Paulistas, which induced Father Montoya,

accompanied by Father Diaz Ta�o, to go to Europe to seek protection for the Indians both from the King of

The Mamelucos burst into the province of Tap�, [5] and, as the mission of JesusMaria (one of the few left

undestroyed at the former invasion) was most exposed, Father Romero asked permission of the Governor of

the River Plate [6] to make some trenches to defend the place. The Governor consented, but the storm burst

on the mission before the defences were in a fit state to defend. The mission priests Antonio Bernal and Juan

Cardenas were in the front ranks encouraging the Indians, and both were badly wounded. Fathers Mola and

Romero went about ministering to the wounded, but escaped themselves. At last, the Mamelucos having set

fire to the church, capitulation became inevitable, and the chief part of the Indians were led away in chains.

The same fate would have overtaken the mission of San Cristobal, where father Romero had retreated with

some fugitives from JesusMaria, had not the people and their priest retreated hastily upon the mission of

Santa Ana. But even there they were not long in safety, and had to undertake another perilous journey down

the river Iguai. Here a party of passing Mamelucos fell into an ambuscade, and were hewn in pieces,

presumably before the Lord. The Mamelucos pushed their advance so far that Father Montoya had given

orders that all the missions of that province should be burned. The inhabitants, who trusted him quite blindly,

were just about to begin to burn their houses, when an order from the Provincial stopped them from doing so

till he himself appeared upon the scene. He arrived, and, gathering up the scattered Indians as far as he was

able, left them for safety in some of the missions which had not been destroyed, and set off himself to ask for

Finding no help either from him or from the Governor of the River Plate, he went to Corrientes, and was

received almost with contumely. Then, desperate, he equipped an army of the mission Indians, and advanced

to fight the Mamelucos; but they had retreated into Brazil, and were beyond his reach. Seeing that nothing

was to be hoped from the Spanish Governors, he sent a box of papers in a ship going to Portugal, and laid his

case before the Council of the Indies. Montoya and Charlevoix relate that the box was thrown into the sea

near Lisbon by some enemy of the Jesuits, but providentially was washed up by the tide, and, being found

miraculously, was taken to the King of Spain. Whether this happened as it is written, who shall say? But, in

distress, when have good men (before the time of the Encyclop�dists) been without a miracle to sustain their

cause? In the next year (1637) Father Montoya and Ta�o started upon their mission to Europe, and a new

field was opened to Montoya in which to show his talents on the Indians' behalf.

Whilst Father Montoya was in Spain, the Provincial appointed Father Alfaro to take his place. He fell on

troublous times, for the Mamelucos were preparing to attack the three remaining missions in the province of

Guayr�. [7] As they were not defensible, it was agreed to evacuate them, and to retreat into the provinces

upon the Uruguay. When they were just about to start from Santa Teresa, where the inhabitants of the other

missions had been collected, the Mamelucos appeared just before Christmas. The Indians were driven off as

slaves, and the Mamelucos, with their usual sense of humour, attended Mass as penitents on Christmas Day,

with candles in their hands, and listened to the sermon in an edifying way. The priest reproached them for

their cruelty, and they, after listening devoutly, gave him the liberty of two choir boys, and quietly left the

At length the Jesuits, rendered desperate by the perils to which the mission Indians were exposed, armed

several bands of Indians and attacked the Mamelucos. But, as was to be expected, the halfarmed Indians

were always worsted by the wellarmed and disciplined Paulista bands, and then the Jesuits took the supreme

resolve to evacuate Guayr� entirely, and place the Indians in safety between the rivers Paran� and Uruguay.

Formed into three great companies, the Indians started on their second exodus. Although the difficulties were

less than in the voyage down the Paran�, still, to march several thousand Indians just emerged from savagery,

accompanied by their women and children, and charged with all their possessions, through a wild country,

where they were exposed to the attack of a wellarmed enemy upon the way, was not an easy task. Father

Christobal Arenas formed them into three divisions, leading the first himself; but the Provincial seems to

have done most of the organizing, for Charlevoix says that 'to his courage, prudence, and inalterable

Courage and prudence and inalterable kindness are the three virtues which have most moved the world;

perhaps the last has been most efficacious, and one would hope that in the future it would be the only one of

Twelve thousand Indians, not counting women and children, were thus led into a territory [9] between the

rivers Uruguay and Paran�, rich, fertile, and, as the distance between the rivers is not above some

fiveandtwenty miles, defended in some measure, and easily rendered almost impregnable.

No one can see the heart of man, and, even if God sees it, He never tells us what is there, so that we are

obliged to judge of actions as we find them, and leave the search for motives to omniscients. On the face of it,

the Jesuits, both those who led the Indians down the Paran� and those who headed them in this migration to

the Mesopotamia between the Uruguay and Paran�, were not impelled by thought of gain; and if a Jesuit must

of necessity have some dark scheme behind the smallest action of his life, these men concealed it so deep

down within their souls that all the researches of their keenest enemies have not been able to throw light on it.

But, even settled in their new homes, the Indians were defenceless against the Mamelucos, as it was a state

maxim of the Spanish court that the Indians should never be allowed the use of guns. This was a wise enough

precaution, without doubt, for the Indians of the Encomiendas, who lived amongst the Spaniards and owed

them personal services; but arms for the Indians of the missions were a necessity of life. Therefore, before he

started for Madrid, the Provincial impressed upon Montoya to approach the Council of the Indies and the

King, and represent to them that it was impossible to guarantee the existence of the reductions against the

Mamelucos unless the Indians were allowed to provide themselves with arms. So Father Montoya, though he

was charged to press for various reforms, was most especially impressed upon this point. He was to tell the

King that the Indians were not to be allowed to keep their arms themselves, but that they would be kept by

the Jesuits, and served out to the Indians in case of an attack; then, that the arms would not cost a penny to the

treasury, but be all paid out of the alms collected for the purpose by the Company; lastly, and this was a true

stroke of Jesuit policy, that, to instruct the Indians how to shoot, they would bring from Chile certain Jesuits

who in the world had served as soldiers. One sees them brought from the frontiers of Araucania, and from the

outposts of the transAndean towns, half sacristan, half sergeant, instant in prayer, and yet with a look about

them like a serious bull terriera fitting kind of priest for a frontier town, and such as could alone be found

About this time (1639) the third invasion of the Mamelucos took place, and Father Alfaro, who had been left

in charge of the missions on the Uruguay and Paran�, was shot by a Mameluco with a crossbow, and fell dead

from his horse. The Governor of Paraguay, on hearing of it, marched with an army, and, having killed two or

three hundred of the Mamelucos, took the rest prisoners, and carried them back to Asuncion. There, to the

disgust of all the Jesuit historians, he menaced them with the wrath of Heaven and let them go. The feelings

of a churchman, when his own privilege is thus usurped, may be compared to those of a strict

gamepreserver who sees his coverts poached. It is not so much the damage that is done as the personal insult

In this year, too, the Indians of the missions rendered their first armed service to the State which afterwards

The Governor of Buenos Ayres, Don Pedro Estevan Davila, was setting out upon an expedition against a tribe

of Indians who had taken refuge in the islands of the Lake Yber�. Eighty of the Indians were sent, and, being

well led and armed, contributed considerably towards success. Next year a second contingent was required by

the Governor of Tucuman, and duly sent to his assistance. History seems to repeat itself, and foolish soldiers

and others never to gain experience; for the Governor (Padre del Techo in his 'Historia Paraquai�' tells us),

having made war in Flanders, could never be dissuaded that the same system was not suitable for warfare in

America. Accordingly, he set out in good order, but neglected to send out scouts, and consequently fell into

the middle of the Calchaquis strongly entrenched within a marsh, attacked them with a rush, lost heavily, and

had to retire to Tucuman. But all this time Father Montoya and Diaz Ta�o were striving in Rome and at

Urban VIII., at that time God's vicegerent for the Christian portion of the world, received Diaz Ta�o kindly,

listened to all he had to say with interest, promised him his help, and gave him a Papal letter menacing the

Mamelucos with the wrath of God. From Rome Father Ta�o went to Madrid, and thence to Lisbon, whence

he sailed armed with the protection of the Pope and accompanied by a fresh band of zealous priests. Arrived

in Rio de Janeiro, he published the Papal letter, and fixed it on the doors of the Jesuit College and on those of

their church. He seems on this occasion to have been wanting in the chief Jesuit virtue, prudence, or at the

least he seems to have mistaken the character of the people amongst whom he was. Most of the colonists

having relations with the Mamelucos were indignant, and a mob broke in the doors both of the college and of

the church. The riot grew so serious that the Governor convoked a council, and cited Father Ta�o to appear.

He came and spoke, and in the eyes of the chief people of the place made out his case; but the multitude,

caring not much for reason (and nothing for philanthropy), became more furious, but was appeased at last by

But if these things passed in Rio de Janeiro (which Del Techo refers to as oppido sanctorum), what was the

fury of the people in S�o Paulo, the very centre of the Mamelucos, when the VicarGeneral published the

brief by order of Don Pedro Albornoz! The people rose immediately, and menaced the VicarGeneral with

instant death unless he instantly withdrew the brief. This he refused to do, although forced on his knees and

with a naked sword held at his throat. His courage quieted them, and they drew up an appeal which they tried

hard to make him sign, but he again refused. The mob, having demanded the brief, was told it was in the

college of the Jesuits. Thither they went posthaste, and were met upon the steps by the Superior, dressed in

canonicals and holding the holy wafer in his hand. He spoke, and most of them fell prostrate on the ground

before the Body of our Lord. Others stood upright, and said that, whilst they adored the Holy Sacrament with

their whole souls, they would not suffer that their slaves, who were their chiefest property, should be set free.

An atheist (or some kind of Protestant) cried out to fire upon the priest, but he had no support. The Superior

then gave them a copy of the brief, and they returned to the VicarGeneral to ask for absolution for any

censure of the Church they might have incurred; but he for the third time was obdurate, and let them welter in

The news of the revolution which liberated Portugal from Spain having just reached the town, the Jesuits had

to retreat from it, leaving the inhabitants enraged against them and more determined than before to push their

forays into Paraguay. But the time was past for their incursions, for Father Ruiz Montoya had prospered at

Madrid, and secured even more than he had hoped for when he started on his quest. On arriving at Madrid,

which he did after a prosperous journey of four months, he waited on the King (Philip IV.), and laid before

1. That the law of 1611, which provided that no Indians, unless taken in a just war, should be reduced to

2. That the Pope should be approached to confirm the briefs of Paul III. and Clement VIII., which contained

3. That those who did not conform to these instructions should be handed over to the Inquisition to be judged.

4. That the Indians who had been enslaved by the Paulistas should be at once set free and the aggressors

The King after deliberation granted every point, and, further, regulated the tribute which the Indians were to

pay. [10] All this was easy to enact, but, like most other laws, not quite so easy to put into effect. Moreover,

as the revolution which separated Portugal from Spain had just occurred, all Spanish thunder against the

Mamelucos was of but small account. Montoya then pressed the demand for license to use firearms in

selfdefence against the Mamelucos. The King after deliberation granted this last point, and from that time

the incursions of the Mamelucos ceased in Paraguay and generally throughout the mission territory. Then

also there was set on foot that Jesuit militia which rendered such good service to the crown, but was the cause

of so much murmuring, as it protected the mission Indians both from the Paulistas and from the inroads of the

Father Montoya never returned to Paraguay, where he had fought so long and done so much for the poor

Indians. Apparently it was not written that he should see the results of all his efforts, for, having embarked at

Seville for Peru, he was detained at Lima on business of the Order. From thence he went to Tucuman, and,

having returned to Lima, died aged seventy. The Viceroy and the chief members of the Audiencia (with

whom he had struggled all his life) accompanied his body to the grave, and it is said that several miracles

That may be so, and if they happened (as they well may have done, for, after all, a miracle [11] really exists

for those who credit it), if Heaven has honoured him, 'tis more than man has done: for even in Paraguay his

name is not remembered, though it remains enshrined in the neglected pages of many a dusty Latin or a

But all the time that Fathers Montoya and Diaz Ta�o were in Europe a serious danger to the Jesuits was

growing up. At the discovery of the New World, the Franciscans had been the first of all the Orders to go out.

Some had accompanied Columbus, some were with Cortes in Mexico. Almagro and Pizarro's hosts had their

Franciscan chaplains. In his commentaries, Alvar Nu�ez relates how he met some of the Order in Brazil.

In 1638 the Franciscans in the province of Jujuy [12] disputed with the Jesuits the right to certain missions,

accusing them, as Padre del Techo says, 'of putting their sickle into their ripening corn.' [13] What could be

more annoying if it were true? As if a Wesleyan mission in the Paumotus Group should, after having shed its

Bibles and its blankets like dry leaves, suddenly find an emissary from Babylon itself arrive and mark the

But from Jujuy the dissensions spread to Paraguay, where the Franciscans had several missions extending

from Yuti to Cazap�, thus being almost within touch of the Jesuit Gospellers in Santa Maria, upon the eastern

bank of the Tebicuari, which bounds their territory. These jealousies might have gone smouldering on, and

never burst out into fire, had not the appointment of a Franciscan to the see of Paraguay caused the flames to

Had a firebrand been wanted to stir up strife, none better could have been found than Don Bernardino de

[1] Even so late as the year 1777, in which the last treaty of boundaries was signed at San Ildefonso, Portugal

was the gainer, though not so greatly as by the former treaties of 1681 and 1750.

[2] 'Efemerides o Diario de la Guerra de los Guaran�es', por P. Tadeo Hennis. This journal has, I think, never

been published in its entirety, but portions of it are to be found in the collection of documents, Bulls,

despatches, etc., published at Madrid in 1768 under the title of 'Causa Jesuitica de Portugal'. The author of

this book calls Hennis a German, but his name, Thadeus Ennis (as it is often spelt), and his love of fighting

look unGermanic. Portions of the diary are also to be found in the work of Bernardo Iba�ez de Echegarray,

entitled 'Histoire du Paraguay sous les J�suites' (Amsterdam, 1780). Either the original or an old manuscript

copy exists in the archives of Simancas, where I have seen, but unfortunately did not examine, it. A portion of

[4] The way of the neophyte even today is hard, so many priests of different jarring sects disputing for his

soul as hotly as if it were a preference stock which they had private intimation was just about to rise.

[5] This province was sometimes called Guayr�, and sometimes La Provincia de Vera, Vera being the family

name of Alvar Nu�ez Cabeza de Vaca. Its position, etc., may be determined by reference to the curious

[6] That a mission could be so undefended as to need trenches, that a Jesuit should ask leave to make such

elementary defences, even in the face of imminent danger, seems to prove that the Jesuits at least in 1636 had

no intention of defying the sovereign power, as was so often alleged against them.

[10] This seems to prove the malice of those who set about that the Indians of the missions paid no taxes to

[11] Vieyra, the great Portuguese Jesuit, said that all miracles were possible to God, but yet that he had never

Don Bernardino de Cardenas, Bishop of Paraguay His labours as apostolic missionary His ambitions

and cunning Pretensions to saintliness His attempts to acquire supreme power Quarrels between

DON BERNARDINO DE CARDENAS first saw the light in the town of La Plata, [1] capital of the province

of Charcas in Bolivia, or, as it was then called, Alta Peru. The date of his birth is uncertain, but it would

appear to have been in the early years of the seventeenth century. At an early age he entered the Franciscan

As the Franciscans had had the honour of having furnished to the calendar the first saint canonized in the

New World, it seems to have been the dream of Cardenas from his earliest youth to emulate him. In this

desire he seems to have acted in good faith, and all his life the dream of saintship haunted him. Charlevoix

[2] says 'he made a rather superficial study of theology, and then engaged in preaching, in which, with

memory, assurance, and facility, he found it easy to succeed in a country where brilliant gifts are more

esteemed than solid learning.' Certainly a preacher without assurance, memory, and facility would scarcely

have succeeded in any country; and in what country in the world is brilliancy not far esteemed above the

deepest scholarship? Besides, 'he was a man of visions (homme � visions) and revelations, which he took

good care to publish.' Visions are generally, in the case of saints, confined to the soul's eye, and revelation to

the inward ear; if, therefore, the recipient of them does not make them known, they run the risk of being lost.

In a word, according to Charlevoix, [3] he was 'one of the most complete and dangerous ecstatics that ever

lived.' 'His first successes' (whether as preacher or ecstatic are not specified) caused his superiors to name

him guardian of their college of La Plata. They soon repented of their choice. No sooner was he named

Superior than he sought to qualify himself for saintship by a sort of royal road. Saints are of several classes,

and, in looking through the calendars, it strikes one how different seem to have been the methods by which

Prince Juan Manuel, in the preface to his 'Fifty Pleasant Stories of Patronio', says that, 'amongst the many

strange things our Lord God made, He thought good to make one marvellous in specialthat is, that, of the

numberless men who are on earth, not one entirely resembles any other in his face.' He might have said the

same of saints and of their ways. One, like St. Francis of Assisi, treats his father (as it seems to me) but

scurvily, and yet to every other created man and all the animals he is a brother. The saint of Avila founds

convents, mingles with men of business, and has visions in the intervals of her journeying through Spain

upon an ass. Again, another preaches to the Indians or the Japanese, gives up his substance, begs his bread

from door to door, and leaves the devil's advocate scarcely a quillet or a quiddity against him. Lastly, you

find against the names of some merely the docket 'virgin' or 'martyr', as their case or sex may serve.

Don Bernardino adopted none of these methods of procedure. Carrying a heavy cross, with ashes on his head

and shoulders bared, followed by all his priests, he sallied out one day to discipline himself in public. This

plan did not succeed with all the world, for his superiors ordered him to remain inside his convent gates.

There he remained, and, as his Life informs us, profited by his retreat to study Holy Scriptures, and to such

good effect that, the next time he preached, he charmed his hearers by his eloquence. Soon after this the

Archbishop of La Plata held a provincial council, with the object of reforming the morals of the Indians in his

diocese. Cardenas, being a fluent speaker, was chosen for the post of Apostolic Missionary. From this time

In those days all the Indians of the Charcas, and generally of all Peru, were sunk in misery, but little removed

from slaves, and their religion was a mixture of Christianity and paganismjust the kind of folk a fluent

preacher of the style of Cardenas could work upon. All through the province he made his apostolic progress,

preaching, converting, and confessing, everywhere preceded by his fame as seer of visions, miracleworker,

and recipient of celestial light. He took his way, dressed like a pilgrim, on foot, carrying a wooden cross, and

Religion in America (Catholic or Protestant) has always tended to revert to the original Eastern form, from

which, no doubt, it sprung. The influence of the vast plains and forests, and the great distances to travel, have

introduced the system of camp meetings amongst the Protestants, whereas the Catholics have often held a sort

of ambulatory mission, the people of one village following the preacher to the next, and so on, in the same

Soon the news was spread about that the Indians who followed Cardenas had told him of rich mines, on the

condition that he would not divulge the secret to the Spaniards. At that time the search for mines was carried

almost to madness in Peru. Even today, in almost every mining town, a mysterious, povertystricken man

sometimes approaches you with great precaution, and, drawing from his pocket an object wrapped in greasy

paper, declares with oaths that it is rosicler (red silver ore), and that he knows where there are tons and tons

of it. In Mexico the curious class of miners known as gambusinos rove through the valleys of the Sierra

Madre armed with pick and pan, passing their lives in hunting mines, as pigs hunt truffles. If they come upon

a mine, they never try to work it, but sell the secret for a trifling sum, and, drinking out the money, start on

again to find the mines worked by the Aztecs, till an Apache bullet or arrow stops them, their El Dorado still

Neither in Mexico nor in Peru do things grow less in telling, and we may well suppose the stories of the

mines the Indians told to Cardenas became colossal; for at last the Alcalde of Cochabamba wrote on the

As Charlevoix says, 'it seemed as if it all worked to the advantage of the holy missionary, who, not content

with saving souls, did not forget the interests of his native land.' In the middle of his triumphs, being recalled

to Lima, no one doubted that it was in order to confer with the Viceroy about the supposititious mines.

Others, again, imagined that a mitre was destined for the successful evangelist, and therefore many, even

quite poor people, pressed forward to offer funds to help him on his way. With quite apostolic assurance, he

took all that was offered to him, being certain, as some think, that, the mines being real, he could some day

repay with usury all he had borrowed, or, as others said, being indifferent about the matter, and trusting to

The Viceroy, being a man of little faith, sent to investigate the supposititious mines, but found them

The superiors of Cardenas, as judicious as the higher officers of the Franciscan Order often proved

themselves throughout America, informed him that he had given offence to many by his public scourgings

and processions carrying a cross, and, most of all, that in his sermons propositions had escaped him of a

nature likely to bring him under the censure of the Holy Office. A convent in Lima was assigned to him as a

As we may well believe, no man who felt he had the stuff within himself to make a saint ever cared much for

obedience or submission, except in others; so in his convent, instead of meditating on his faults, he passed his

time in writing a memorial to the Council of the Indies, setting forth his views on the way in which to spread

the gospel amongst the Indians. Nothing was better calculated to win him favour. Every Indian baptized was

Conversion and taxation always went handinhand, and therefore Indians who, unbaptized, brought nothing

to the treasury, having received the Gospel truths, were taxed so much a head to show them that from

thenceforth they were Christians. Thus, we find that in the Paraguayan missions each Indian paid a dollar

every year as a sort of polltax, and most of the disputes between the Viceroys of Paraguay and the Jesuits

arose from the number of the Indians taxable. The Viceroys always alleged that the population of the

missions never increased, on account of the Jesuits returning false numbers to avoid the tax.

Cardenas specially inculcated, in his memorial to the Council of the Indies, that it was not expedient to place

the Indians under the regular clergy, a theory of which he himself was destined to become a great antagonist.

Promotion, as we know, cometh neither from the east nor from the west; so it fell out that during his retreat,

through the influence of his friend Don Juan de Solorzano, a celebrated lawyer, who had heard him preach

when Governor of Guancavelico, he found himself named Bishop of Asuncion del Paraguay. This piece of

luck opened the doors of his convent to him, and he repaired at once to Potosi to wait the arrival of the Papal

Bull authorizing him to take possession of his bishopric. There he appeared in the habit of his Order, a little

wooden cross upon his breast, and a green hat upon his head, a costume which, if not quite fitting to his new

His biographer informs us that, without a word to anyone, he began to preach and hear confessions. Being

absolutely without resources, he was reduced to distribute indulgences and little objects of piety, and at the

end of every sermon to send his green hat round the audience. His talent for preaching stood him in good

stead, and after every sermon gifts were showered upon him, and a crowd accompanied him home.

The priest of Potosi being just dead, Don Bernardino took his place without permission, and set himself up in

the double character of parish priest and Bishop to hold a visitation throughout the diocese.

Some people took this conduct as evidence of his saintlike humility in condescending, though a Bishop, to

officiate as a mere priest. The Archbishop had a different opinion, but, as Don Bernardino had a great

following, he thought it best to dissemble his resentment. Cardenas himself, by his imprudence, furnished the

A rich Indian, whom Cardenas confessed upon his deathbed, left him ten thousand crowns. Not content with

that, he influenced one Diego Vargas to change his will and leave him money. On this the Archbishop wrote

to him, requesting that he would go and govern his own see. He had to go, but left the town, which he had

entered without a farthing, with a long train of mules carrying his money, plate, and furniture. Why he did not

instantly go to Asuncion is not quite clear, for in America it was the custom, owing to the great distance from

Rome, that Bishops, on receipt of the royal order of appointment, got themselves chosen by the chapter of

their diocese to govern provisionally. Instead of doing that, he went to Tucuman, and thence to Salta, where

In Salta, his first visit was to the Jesuit college, where he laid his case before the Jesuit fathers, and showed

them several letters, one from the Cardinal Antonio Barberini dated in 1638, and another from the King

without a date, naming him Bishop of Asuncion. On the strength of these two letters he asked the Jesuits if he

could get himself consecrated without the Papal Bulls. Charlevoix alleges that they dared not refuse to answer

in the way he wished. Why this was so is not so easy to make out, as, even with his green hat and wooden

cross, he could not at that time have been a formidable personage. Their written opinion he sent at once to the

rector of the Jesuit college at Cordova, asking for his opinion and that of the doctors of the university. The

answer reached him in Santiago del Estero, and was unfavourable. On reading the letter, Cardenas fell into a

most unsaintlike fury, and tore it up without communicating it to anyone, not even to the Bishop of

Tucuman, Don Melchior Maldonado. This was not strange, as he had counted on this Bishop to consecrate

Notwithstanding what was at stake, he went on in the diocese of Tucuman just as he had done in that of

Charcas, preaching, confessing, and celebrating Mass. Don Melchior Maldonado, a quiet man of no

pretensions, wrote him a letter in which he said: 'You came into my diocese like a St. Bernard; such is the

reputation you have for holiness and preaching that my people pay me no respect, and only look on me as a

man of common virtue and mediocre talents. Although I hope I am not jealous, still, I must remind you that

A Bishop of common virtue and of mediocre talents is, of course, a Bishop lost, and one can well conceive

that poor Don Melchior Maldonado was placed in an unpleasant position during the stay of Cardenas in his

diocese. Such were Don Bernardino's powers of persuasion that at last the Bishop consecrated him. The

ceremony was hardly over, when a letter arrived from the Rector of the University of Cordova advising

Bishop Maldonado against the consecration. Unluckily for Paraguay, it was too late to undo the action, and

Cardenas was now in a position to take possession of his see. Poor Melchior Maldonado, Bishop of Tucuman,

had, as it happened, laid hands a little hastily upon the candidate. The Council of Trent pronounced upon the

case, and found 'that the consecration of the Bishop of Paraguay had been a valid one as touching the

sacrament (ordination), and the impression of the character, but that it had been void as regards the power of

discharging the functions attaching to the dignity, and that the Bishop and his consecrator had need of

absolution, which the same holy congregation thinks ought to be accorded with the good pleasure of the

Pope.' As the same holy congregation had previously declared the taking possession of the diocese by

Cardenas had been illegal, it is difficult for ordinary minds to grasp their real opinion of the case.

Finding that he had failed with the University of Cordova, Don Bernardino took his way to Santa F�, from

whence he wrote an insulting letter to the poor rector. The letter was conceived in such outrageous terms that

the Bishop of Tucuman wrote in expostulation, saying he expected to see something extraordinary happen in

Don Bernardino's usual luck attended him in Santa F�. This town then formed part of the diocese of Buenos

Ayres, though situated about four hundred miles from the metropolis. It happened that the see of Buenos

Ayres was vacant, and the chapter of the cathedral invited Cardenas to visit that portion of the diocese

through which he had to pass. Cardenas was, of course, delighted to show his talents for preaching, as he had

done before in Charcas and in Potosi. When he arrived at Corrientes the enthusiasm for his holiness and

talents was extraordinary. In Corrientes, Don Bernardino seems to have felt, for the first time, his calling and

election really sure. At the time he landed (1642) the land was sunk in ignorance and superstition. Even

today in Corrientes (the city of the seven currents), situated just at the junction of the rivers Paran� and

Paraguay, close to the celebrated missions of the Jesuits, the inhabitants, living in a country almost tropical,

What Corrientes looked like in Don Bernardino's time is matter of conjecture. Perhaps it was not greatly

different from some remote SpanishAmerican frontier towns some fiveandtwenty years ago, save for the

groups of Spanish soldiery, with their steel morions, trunk hose and heavy arquebuses lounging about, and in

the matter of the scarcity of horses in the streets. No doubt the selfsame listless air hung over everything,

and in the place of the modern blue and white barred flags with a rising sun or cap of liberty stuck like a

trademark in the corner, the blood and orange Spanish colours with the quarterings of castles and of lions

flapped heavily against the flagstaff of the fort. The Indian women dressed all in white, their hair cut square

across the forehead and hanging down their backs, sat with their baskets of fruit and flowers in the

marketplace. The town, as now, built chiefly of adobes, with a few wooden huts dotted about, was

semioriental in design. On every church were cupolas after the eastern fashion, flat roofs on every house,

and everything shone dazzling white against the dark, metalliclooking foliage of the trees. The streets, as

now, were sandy watercourses, crossed here and there with traverses of roughhewn stone to break the

At night the fireflies glistened amongst the heavy leaves of the mamayes and the orangetrees, whilst from

the Chaco rose the mysterious voices of the desert night, and from the outskirts of the town the wailing Indian

Jarabis and Cielitos sung in a high falsetto key to the tinkling of a cracked guitar, but broken now and then by

the sharp warning cry 'Alerta centinela!' of the soldiers on the walls. Could one have landed there, one would

have felt much as a sailor feels, dropped on the beach of Eromango or on some yet unbemissionaried island

Embarking from Corrientes up the river Paraguay, the Bishop met two vessels sent from Asuncion to do him

honour. When night approached he put in practice one of the manoeuvres which in Peru had stood him in

good stead. On every side a swarm of launches and canoes accompanied the ship to see the Bishop, whom

already many believed a saint. He asked them all to retire a little from his ship. All did so but the guard of

honour sent from Asuncion. Towards the middle of the night the sound of scourging wakened them. It was

their Bishop trying to prepare himself for the duties that awaited him. Every succeeding night the same thing

happened. During the day he celebrated Mass pontifically upon the deck. Voyages upon the river Paraguay

before the days of steamers took a considerable time, especially as every night the custom was to anchor or to

make fast the vessel to a tree. Soon the rumour reached Asuncion that a second St. Thomas was on his way to

visit them. St. Thomas, as is said, once visited Paraguay, and a cave in the vicinity of a town called Paraguari,

Fate seemed determined that the Bishop should always meet the Jesuits, no matter where he went.

Becoming weary of the slow progress of the ships, he disembarked four leagues below Asuncion, at a farm

belonging to the Company. He managed to dissemble his resentment so perfectly that no one knew he had a

grudge against them. Arrived at the capital, he went at once to the church of San Blas, then to the Cathedral,

where he celebrated Mass and preached, his mitre on his head. After service he dismissed the people to their

homes to dine, saying, however, that he himself was nourished by an invisible food and by a beverage which

men could not perceive. 'My food' (he said) 'is but to do the work and will of Him who sent me.' Therefore he

remained in prayer and meditation until vespers, and that office finished, he retired to the palace accompanied

In his position his conduct was most adroit, for, as his Bulls had not arrived, he must have known he had no

legal status, and that, in default of that, he had to conquer public sympathy. The chapter never doubted that

Don Bernardino would place himself entirely in their hands as his Bulls had not arrived. He, however, seems

to have thought that the act of celebrating Mass pontifically in the Cathedral had put him in possession of his

powers. So he named one Cristobal Sanchez as his VicarGeneral. Two of the members of the chapter, Don

Diego Ponce de Leon and Don Fernando Sanchez, remonstrated, but a considerable portion of the chapter

sided with Cardenas. The stronger party left the Cathedral and celebrated Mass in the church belonging to the

The Bishop, not being secure of his position, had recourse to every art [4] to catch the public eye: fasting and

scourging, prayers before the altar, two Masses every day, barefoot processionshimself the central figure,

carrying a crosseach had their turn. Along the deep red roads between the orangegardens which lead from

Asuncion towards the Recoleta and the Campo Grande, he used to take his way accompanied by Indians

crowned with flowers, giving his benediction as he passed, to turn away (according to himself) the plague and

to insure a fertile harvest. Not being content with the opportunities which life afforded, he instituted an

Soon, as was to be expected in such a country, this service proved the occasion of much scandal, and, instead

of showing people how to leave the world, became the means of introducing many into life in a clandestine

way. The rector of the Jesuit college thought it his duty to inform the Bishop; but he, like all good men,

thought nothing bad could spring from anything that he himself originated. No doubt he put it down to

malice, as good people will when worldlings put the finger on the weak spot of a religious institution; but

The Governor of Paraguay at that time was one Gregorio de Hinostrosa, an officer born in Chile, an honest,

pious, woodenheaded man, and much beloved by the inhabitants of Paraguay. On his arrival Don

Bernardino tried to conciliate him. Unluckily, a friendship with the Bishop was impossible without a blind

submission to his will. In the beginning all was flattery; when Don Gregorio attended Mass, the Bishop used

to meet him at the church door. Not to be outdone, the Governor returned the Bishop's politeness in a similar

way, but went so far in his complaisance that Don Bernardino ceased to respect him. Soon there arose

Nor was the Bishop more successful with his clergy. Some of them laughed at his pretensions to be a saint,

and called him an ambitious schemer. Again, amongst the laity, many did not quite understand his habit of

celebrating two Masses every day. He answered that he never celebrated without releasing a soul from

purgatory, and that there had been saints who celebrated nine Masses every day, and, moreover, that he was

Pope in his own diocese. This cut the ground from under the feet of his detractors, for in a town of the calibre

of Asuncion the people looked on a service in a church as a welcome means of getting through the day, and

had he celebrated a dozen masses they would but have been more delighted with their new Bishop.

Under the pretext that there were not enough priests to serve the churches, he, by degrees, took several

parishes into his own hands, and went from church to church to celebrate his Mass in each, whilst not

forgetting to draw the various stipends for his work. But, not content with this, he began to ordain young men

who knew no Latin, and even criminals, setting forth the view that ordination was a sort of second baptism,

which purged all crimesa most convenient theory, and one which is not half enough insisted on in these

The position of Asuncion gave him an opportunity of an almost unique kind to show his talents in another

sphere. Across the river Paraguay, there about one mile broad, extends the country called the Chaco, a vast

domain of swamp and forest, inhabited in those days, as at present, by tribes of wandering Indians. From the

city walls, whilst listening to the churchbells, one can see the smoke of Indian encampments across the river

Of all the Indian tribes in the time of Cardenas, the most ferocious were the Guaycur�s. The Jesuits had

laboured almost in vain amongst them. Missions had been founded, and all gone well for months, and even

years, when on a sudden, and without reason, the Guaycur�s had burned the houses, killed the priests, and

gone back to the wilds. From Santa F� up to the province of Matto Grosso they kept the frontier in a turmoil,

Not long before his arrival the Guaycur�s had intimated their intention of holding a conference with Don

Gregorio Hinostrosa. Don Bernardino thought the chance too good to lose, and at once declared that, as a

Bishop, it was his place to carry on negotiations with the barbarians. Dressed in his robes and with an escort

furnished by the Governor, he met the chiefswho no doubt looked on him as a new kind of

medicinemanpreached to them through an interpreter, curiously being without the gift of tongues, but

notwithstanding that a reasonable number of them were baptized. On his return, he wrote to the King that by

his efforts he had appeased the most ferocious Indians within his Majesty's domains.

Within a week the Guaycur�s surprised and burned a settlement a little higher up the stream. Not content with

this Caligulesque apostolate to the Guaycur�s, the Bishop longed for serious occupation, and caused it to be

rumoured about the city that he did nothing except by the direct authority of the Holy Ghost, an allegation

hard to confute, and if allowed, likely to lead to difficulties even in Paraguay.

Some years before the advent of Don Bernardino the Dominicans had built a convent in Asuncion. As they

had no license to build, they were in the position of religious squatters on the domain of God. The citizens

had applied to the Audiencia of Charcas, the supreme court on all such matters in South America, situated,

with true Spanish unpracticality, in one of the most secluded districts of the continent. The Audiencia had

refused the license, but had taken the matter 'ad advisandum' for ten years. To take a matter into consideration

for ten years, even in Spain or South America, where the law's delay is generally more mortal than in any

other country, was as good as giving a permission. So the Dominicans construed it, and no one dreamed of

One day the Bishop, dressed in his robes, proceeded from his palace to the convent, informing the Governor

that he wanted him to meet him there. Entering the convent church, he took the sacrament from off the altar

and stripped the church of all its ornaments, setting a gang of workmen to demolish both the convent and the

church. When the work was over, he went to a neighbouring church, and then and there, without confession,

celebrated Mass, remarking to the faithful that there was no need for him to make confession, as he was

satisfied of the condition of his conscience. Some murmured; but the greater portion of the people, always

ready to take a saint at his own valuation, were delighted with his act. Doubts must have crossed his mind, as

shortly afterwards he wrote to Don Melchior Maldonado, Bishop of Tucuman, for his opinion. That Bishop

answered rather tartly that his zeal appeared to him to savour more of the zeal of Elias than of Jesus Christ,

and that in a country where churches were so few it seemed imprudent to pull down rather than to build.

'However,' he added, 'my light is not so brilliant as the light your lordship is illumined by.'

When once a man is well convinced that all he does comes from the Holy Ghost, there is but little that he

cannot do with satisfaction to himself. Selfmurderers, according to the custom of those times, were not

allowed admission into holy ground, as if the fact of having found their life unbearable debarred them from

the right to be considered men. Such a man a few years previously had been buried at a crossroad. It now

occurred to Cardenas to have a special revelation on the subject; and, curiously enough, this special

revelation was on the side of commonsense. 'This body,' said the Bishop, 'is that of a Christian, and I feel

pretty sure his soul is now in bliss.' He gave no reason for his opinion, as is the way of most religious folk,

but, as he had special means of communication with heaven, most people were contented. Incontinently he

had the corpse dug up and buried in the church of the Incarnation, himself performing all the funeral rites.

Although a miracle or two would have shocked nobody, still, in the matter of the suicide he had gone too far

for the simple people of the place. They murmured, and for a moment the Bishop's prestige was in jeopardy;

but in the nick of time his Bulls arrived, brought by his nephew, Pedro de Cardenas, who, like himself, was a

Franciscan friar. This saved him, and gave the people something new to think of, though at the same time he

In the Bulls there was a passage to the effect that, if at his consecration any irregularity had been incurred, he

was liable to suspension from all his functions. This the Jesuit who translated the documents into Spanish for

the purpose of publication drew his attention to. However, Cardenas was not a man to be intimidated by so

small a matter, but read the translation to the people in the Cathedral, and intimated to them that the Pope had

Though Don Gregorio, the Governor, was present at the ceremony, he made no protest at the assumption of

temporal power by Cardenas. He had remarked it, though, and secretly determined to show him that his

pretensions were unfounded. His nephew, Don Pedro de Cardenas, furnished the occasion. This young man

had been despatched to Spain to get the Bulls. Upon the voyage he seems to have conducted himself with

scant propriety. On his return, when passing Corrientes, he took on board a lady whom Charlevoix, quite in

the spirit of the author of the Book of Proverbs, describes as 'une jeune femme bien faite'. Having some

qualms of conscience, he put on a secular dress, and on nearing Asuncion put his religious habit over it. In

such a climate this double costume must have been inconvenient, and why he should have worn one dress

above the other does not appear. His uncle, in his delight at the forthcoming of the Bulls, most probably paid

little attention to his appearance. He lodged him in the palace, and assigned him a prebendary which was

vacant. Where the 'jeune femme bien faite' was lodged is not set down, and the people of Asuncion no doubt

looked leniently on such affairs, as does society today in England. After his usual fashion, the Bishop set all

About this time the Governor had put in prison one Ambrosio Morales, a subofficial of the Inquisition, who

had had a quarrel with an officer. Cardenas, being informed of this, could not lose so good a chance of

exercising the power he arrogated in temporal affairs. Holding a monstrance in his hands, he went to the

prison and asked for the prisoner, placing the monstrance on a table at the prison gate. The rector of the Jesuit

college came and expostulated with him, saying that it was not fitting to expose the body of Jesus Christ in

such a place, and that it was not decent that the Bishop himself should stay there. Considering his position,

and the times in which he lived, it seems the rector was judicious in his expostulation. Cardenas replied that

he would stay there till the prisoner was released. The rector, knowing him to be as obstinate as a male mule,

went and begged the Governor to let Morales out. This he did at once, and then the Bishop, cross in hand,

returned in triumph to the palace with the rescued Inquisitor following amongst his train. The people, whose

lives were dull, snatched at the opportunity for some amusement, and said that it was good luck the Governor

and Bishop were not always of one mind, for that their agreement had caused the demolition of a church and

This little triumph emboldened the Bishop to go further. He admitted Morales into minor orders, gave him

the tonsure, and thus, having placed him above the temporal power, enabled him to brave the Governor

openly. The Bishop's nephew, taking the Governor's kindness for weakness, broke publicly into insulting

terms about him. The Governor's brother, Father Hinostrosa, pressed him to vindicate his dignity, but he

refused, saying he wanted peace at any price. This policy the Bishop did not understand, for all concessions

he set down as weakness, and they encouraged him to fresh exactions and more violence.

Dining with the Governor, the Bishop chanced to see upon the table a fine pair of silver candlesticks. To see

and to desire with Cardenas was to ask, and so he intimated to the Governor his wish to have them. The

Governor, thinking, perhaps, to wipe out the remembrance of the difficulty about Morales, sent them to the

palace with his compliments. The Bishop took the present, and, turning to the man who brought them, said, 'I

should now be quite content if I only had the silver ewer and flagon which I noticed in your master's house.'

The Governor, we may suppose, on hearing this made what the Spaniards call 'la risa del conejo'; but sent the

plate and a message, saying all his house contained was at the Bishop's service. Don Bernardino, who, though

he may have been a saint, as his friends proclaimed, was certainly far from a gentleman, sent for the flagon

and the ewer, which he received at once, together with a friendly message from the Governor.

But even this freewill offering brought no quiet, for a new quarrel soon arose between the Bishop and the

unlucky wielder of the temporal power. The Society of the Holy Sacrament enjoyed an encomienda at or near

Asuncion. The Bishop, no doubt thinking he was most fitted to indoctrinate the Indians, endeavoured to

persuade the Governor to get the Society of the Holy Sacrament to make their Indians over to himself. The

Governor, who knew his fellowcountrymen, flatly refused, and upon this Don Bernardino fell into a fury,

and reproached him with such bitterness that Don Gregorio, too, overstepped the bounds of prudence, and

threw the conduct of his nephew with the 'jeune femme bien faite' into the Bishop's teeth.

Hell has been said to have no fury equal to a woman scorned, but a Bishop thwarted makes a very tolerable

show. Don Bernardino was one of those who think an insult to themselves carries with it a challenge to God,

an outrage on religion, and generally conceive the honour of Heaven is attacked by any contradiction of

themselves. To animadvert upon the actions of a Bishop's nephew is as bad as heresyfar worse than

simonyand the man who does it cannot but be a heretic at heart. So, at least, Don Bernardino thought; for,

with candle, bell, and book, and what was requisite, he excommunicated the poor Governor, and declared him

incompetent to bear the royal standard in a religious festival which was shortly to take place.

Excommunication was at least as serious then as bankruptcy is now, though in Spanish America it did not

Not wishing to use force, the Governor yielded the point, and did not trouble the procession. His moderate

conduct gained him many partisans, and put many people against the Cardenas. The nephew, Pedro de

Cardenas, thought it a good occasion to insult the Governor in public; so one day in the street he followed

him, casting reflections on his mother and his female relatives. Don Gregorio, who was a man of tried

courage, having served for years against the Indians of Arauco, the bravest race of all the Indians of America,

controlled his temper, and, turning to the young Franciscan, said, 'Go with God, my father; but do not try me

any more.' It was not to be expected that in those times and such a place a man like Don Gregorio de

Hinostrosa, who had passed his life upon the frontiers, and who held supreme authority, would quietly submit

to such a public insult; so one night he appeared at the Bishop's palace, accompanied by soldiers, to arrest

Don Pedro. Out came Cardenas, and excommunicated the Governor and all his soldiers on the spot, and Don

Pedro pointed a pistol at his head. He, seeing himself obliged either to make a public scandal or retire, being

for peace at any price, retired, and the triumphant Bishop published his edict of excommunication, which he

extended with a fine of fifty crowns to every soldier who had been present at the scene. On reflection,

thinking, perhaps, it was unwise to excommunicate so many soldiers, who might be needed to repel an Indian

attack, he sent and told the Governor he was ready to absolve him upon easy terms. The Governor, who had

made light of the first excommunication, was rather staggered when he found the second posted at the

Cathedral door. And now a comedy ensued; for Don Gregorio went to the Bishop, and on his knees asked for

forgiveness. He, taken unawares, also knelt down, and, when the Governor kissed his hand, wished to return

the compliment, and would have done so had the rector of the Jesuit college not prevented him.

As Charlevoix says, 'to see them on their knees, no one could have imagined which one it was who asked the

other's grace.' The Bishop granted absolution to the Governor; but the soldiers' action had been flat sacrilege

Two excommunications in a week were almost, one would think, enough to satisfy a Pope; but having

nominated one Diego Hernandez, a Portuguese, to the post of Alguacil Mayor of the Inquisition, and given

him the right to wear a sword in virtue of his office, the Governor, meeting the man in the street wearing a

sword against his regulations, made him a prisoner. At once Don Bernardino launched another

excommunication. But this time he had gone too far; the Governor laughed at his thunder, and condemned the

prisoner to be hanged. At his wits' end, the Bishop sent a servant to the man, and told him to fear nothing, for

that, if he suffered death, he was a martyr, and that he himself would preach his funeral sermon. The

Governor, who was perhaps a humorist, laughed at the message, which, he said, was not consoling, and then

himself let Hernandez out of prison under heavy bail. The excommunication was then taken off, and peace

As well as being not given to wine, it is essential that a Bishop shall know how to keep his own counselas

Lorenzo Gracian expresses it, [5] 'not to lie, but not for that to speak out always the whole truth.' Everyone

who knew the Bishop and his hasty temper was astonished at his behaviour to the Jesuits. No one imagined

he had forgotten the attitude the rector of the University of Cordova had assumed towards his consecration,

and still the Bishop seemed to show more favour to the Jesuits in Asuncion than to the members of the other

religious communities. Perhaps he felt the want of partisans amongst the educated classes, for his quarrel

with the Governor had lost him many friends. Certainly in Asuncion it was of great importance that the

He praised them fulsomely both in the pulpit and in conversation, went in procession to their church, and

treated them in public with marked consideration. As a contemporaneous Jesuit has left a record, they were

not his dupes, but still endeavoured to live up to the praises he dispensed to them. He went so far as in a letter

to the King, Philip IV., to say that the Jesuits only in all Paraguay were really fitted to have the care of

Indians, and he advised the King to transfer the Indians who were under other religious bodies, as well as

those under the secular clergy, to the care and guidance of that Order. No doubt in this the Bishop was right,

even if not sincere. One of the qualifications the Jesuits had for the care of Indians was that the Indians did

As in the same way that in Matabeleland, perhaps, a German, Frenchman, or Italian is less hateful to the

natives than an Englishman, so in Paraguay the Indians liked the Jesuits better than the other Orders, for there

were many foreigners amongst their ranks. The Jesuits soon comprehended that the Bishop wished to make

them odious to the public by overpraise. To set to work in such a manner almost requires an early training in

a seminary, and that such tactics should have been put in force against such skilled diplomatists as were the

Jesuits argues no ordinary capacity for diplomatic work in Cardenas. With him, however, the Spanish

proverb, 'Betwixt the word and deed the space is great', had little application. The vicar of a place called

Arecaya, close to Asuncion, had fallen into disgrace; the Bishop removed him from his parish, and asked the

rector of the Jesuit college to send a priest to take his place. The answer he received was politic, and to the

effect that there was no Jesuit who could be spared, and even if there was it illbefitted any Jesuit to infringe

upon the duties of the secular clergy; but that, if Cardenas intended to found a new reduction with all the

privileges that the King had always given to that kind of establishment, the rector himself would ask

permission from his Provincial to undertake the work. A splendid answer, and one which proved that the man

who gave it was a man wasted in Paraguay, and that his place by rights was Rome or, at the least, some court.

Don Bernardino, who in matters such as these was quite as cunning as the rector, thanked him, and said he

did not want a saint, but a priest to take the duty of another priest for a short time. The rector, seeing his

diplomacy had failed, told Father Mansilla, who was at Itatines, to transfer himself to Arecay�, and, writing

to the Bishop, told him that he had no doubt Mansilla would do all that was fitting in the case. The Bishop,

who had gained his point and saw no further use for diplomacy, said: 'Of that I am quite sure, and if he does

not I shall excommunicate him, and lay the district of the Itatines under an interdict.' Nothing appeared to

give Don Bernardino such unmitigated pleasure as an excommunication; on the slightest protest he was

ready, so that during his episcopate someone or other in Asuncion must have always been under the ban of

Holy Mother Church. The rector felt instinctively that Don Bernardino had not done with him. This was the

case, for soon another order came to send two Jesuits to undertake the guidance of a mission near Villa Rica.

As at the time the Jesuits had no missions near Villa Rica, the order was most unpleasant to him. Firstly, the

two who wentFathers Gomez and Domenecchihad to leave their missions and undertake a lengthy

journey in the wilds. On reaching Villa Rica, they found not only that the inhabitants looked on them with

great disfavour as interlopers, but that the Indians, whom they were sent to guide, were under the encomienda

system, thus forcing them to wink at that which they disapproved. The resolution that they took did them

great honour; it was to leave the town of Villa Rica and live out in the forests with the Indians.

The Jesuits of the college at Asuncion felt the situation keenly. People began to murmur at them for their

invasion of the spiritual domains of others, and the rector, in despair, sent to the Bishop, and begged him not

to praise them in his sermons. Nothing cost Cardenas so little as to promise, so he promised not to mention

them again, and next time that he preached he spent an hour in telling of the wonders that the Jesuits had

done in saving souls, not only amongst Catholics, but also amongst the infidels and Turks. The tactics of the

Bishop were so marked that at last a rumour reached Don Melchior Maldonado, the Bishop of Tucuman, of

whom Don Bernardino always stood in dread. His letter somehow became public, and as in it he spoke most

warmly of the Jesuits, and praised the rector, the public turned again upon their side. Just at this time,

however, the sleeping feud between the Bishop and the Governor broke out anew with so much fury that

attention was directed from the Jesuits for the time being; but on them the situation still was hung, and both

[3] Charlevoix, vol. i., book xi. Dean Funes, in his 'Ensayo de la Historia Civil de Paraguay, Buenos Ayres y

Tucuman', vol. ii., book iii., p. 10 (Buenos Ayres, 1816), says of him: 'Se adquiri� muy en breve una

[4] But besides putting into execution all his histrionic talents, he had the adroitness to address himself to

those feelings of selfinterest which he knew were perhaps more powerful than those of admiration and

respect for his own saintly proceedings in his new diocese. Cr�tineau Joly, in his 'Histoire de la Compagnie

de J�sus', vol. iii., p. 333 (Paris, 1845), tells us that Cardenas 'parle aux Espagnols, il s'addresse � leurs

inter�ts, il r�veille les vieux levain de discorde . . . et il accuse les missionnaires d'�tre seuls les ap�tres de la

[5] 'Oraculo Manual y Arte de Prudencia' (Amsterdam, en casa de Juan Blau, 1659).

Renewal of the feud between the Bishop and Don Gregorio Wholesale excommunications in Asuncion

Cardenas in 1644 formulates his celebrated charges against the Jesuits The Governor, after long

negotiations and much display of force, ultimately succeeds in driving out the Bishop For three years

Cardenas is in desperate straits In 1648 Don Gregorio is suddenly dismissed, Cardenas elects himself

Governor, and for a short time becomes supreme in Asuncion The Jesuits are forced to leave the town and

to flee to Corrientes A new Governor is appointed in Asuncion He defeats Cardenas on the field of

battle The latter is deprived of his power, and dies soon after as Bishop of La Paz

THE GOVERNOR, like a prudent soldier, was biding his time. The Bishop, not yet strong enough to walk

alone, dared not break openly with the Jesuits. Don Pedro Cardenas still following up his evil courses, poor

Don Gregorio Hinostrosa, accustomed all his life to deal with 'officers and gentlemen', thought fit to bring

this under his uncle's notice. The Bishop spoke to his nephew in a paternal fashion, enjoining certain

penances upon him, and amongst others that he was to kiss the earth. Although Don Pedro Cardenas was not

a man accustomed to lavish kisses on things inanimate, he complied, but, though complying, still pursued his

Quite in the manner of King Charles (of pious memory), the Governor determined to arrest the recalcitrant

with his own hand. Armed to the teeth, and with a band of musketeers accompanying him, he appeared before

the convent of St. Francis, where Father Cardenas had taken refuge, and, dragging him from his bed, haled

him incontinently to the river's bank, and left him gagged and bound, a prey to flies and sun, for two whole

days, dressed in his drawers and shirt. On the third day he was embarked in a canoe for Corrientes, with a

small quantity of jerked beef for all provision, and a woman's cloak wrapped round his shoulders to shield

him from the cold. Not quite the guise in which a clergyman would care to appear before the eyes of his

superiors, even in Paraguay. Naturally, the Bishop, having nothing else to do, got out his excommunication in

Meantime Asuncion was in confusion, the Bishop and the Governor keeping no measure with the other man

of sin. One tried to obtain possession of the other's person to throw him into prison; the other strove to

animate the preachers in the various churches to consign his rival's soul to hell. In the deserted streets drums

thundered, whilst in the air bells jangled, and the quiet, sleepy town was rent in twain by the dissensions of

the opposing powers. The churches closed their doors, and the consolations of religion were withdrawn from

To add to the confusion, Don Pedro Cardenas escaped from Corrientes, and, having taken to himself a

companionone Francisco Sanchez de Carrerasraged through the city like a devil unchained. In his

extremity, the poor Bishop went to the Jesuits for advice, informing them he could not stand the scandals that

were taking place, and that he intended to leave the city after launching an interdict of excommunication

upon all. Placed in the position of declaring openly either for Bishop or for Governor, the Jesuits refused an

answer, knowing that anything they said would be brought up against them. All their advice to him was, 'to

trust in God, to persevere in his good efforts, to resign himself to divine will, which will, as the Bishop knew

full well, worked sometimes in a mysterious fashion for the welfare of the soul.' The Bishop answered this

advice fort sechement, [1] taking it for a reproach, and as a sort of thing not to be tolerated amongst

professionalsas if one lawyer, having gone to another for his advice upon a private matter, had received for

Still, the occasion called for something to be done; so, calling an Indian servant, he stripped to the waist, and,

to the horror and amazement of the public, appeared with naked feet and shoulders, dressed in a sack and

armed with a heavy scourge. At the first blow he gave himself some canons of the Cathedral begged him to

desist; but he, after prayer, replied that he intended, so to speak, to act as his own Pascal lamb, and wipe out

A naked Bishop in a sack is almost sure to attract some observation even in Paraguay. Religious women not

unfrequently have been attracted by such a spectacle, and so it proved on this occasion. Although the Jesuits

and the saner portion of the population blamed the Bishop's action, he made himself a host of partisans

amongst the women of all classes, who followed him as they have often followed other thaumaturgists in

His friend Don Melchior Maldonado, hearing what had passed, wrote to reprove him for his inconsiderate

zeal. In his epistle he observed that, though some of the Apostles had scourged themselves, it was not their

habit to appear half naked before a crowd of women; that our Lord Himself had not of His own accord taken

off His garments for the scourger; that saints who scourged themselves had, as a general rule, chosen a

private place for their selfdiscipline. This was quite reasonable, but the advice was little to the taste of the

If crosses make a saint, about this time Don Bernardino had his full share of them. News came from Itatines,

where the two Jesuits had been marooned, that both of them were ill. Cardenas, who, we may remember, was

homme � visions, called in the rector of the Jesuit college to inform him that the Company of Jesus had a new

martyr in their ranks. Though martyrs (even today) enter the ranks of General Loyola's army pretty

frequently, it still seemed strange that the Bishop should know of this particular recruit before the rector.

Pressed for an explanation, he replied that a pious person who was vouchsafed communication with the Lord

in prayer had seen Father Domenecchi in heaven shining in glory and with a halo round his head.

Nothing could be more satisfactory. All the essentials of a wellattested miracle had been complied with. A

man was dead, another man had seen the dead man in an ecstasy of prayer, and, to make all complete, refused

to testify himself, sending the Bishop as a sort of pious phonograph. No true believer in such a case could

doubt, and all went well till it appeared a man from Itatines, charged with a message to the Jesuit college, had

passed the night before he gave his message at the Bishop's house. In Holy Writ we read the wicked man

shall have no rest; if this is so, it is as it should be, though generally the good seem just as troubled in their

lives as the most erring of their brethren. He who would be a saint must be adoing, year in, year out, just

The pseudomiracle not having been quite a success, he turned to other fields, and summoned all the

inhabitants of Paraguay to attend at the Cathedral upon a certain day. The Governor, thinking there was a

revolution likely to break out, fixed a review of all the troops for the same date. A Jesuit priest waited upon

the Bishop to persuade him that the crowds which would assemble might break the peace. The Bishop

reassured him, and sent him to the Governor to say that his intention was to preach to the people and explain

to them the faith; further, that he intended on that day to raise his excommunication and be reconciled: only

he asked him to allow the troops to attend and hear his sermon. The crowd was great; the Bishop mounted the

pulpit, and, extending his forefinger in the attitude of malediction so dear to Bishops, straight began to

preach. For a time all went well. The Governor, presumably, was waiting for the circulation of the hatthat

awful mystery which makes all sects kinwhen to his horror Cardenas began to enumerate all his offences:

he was anathema, was excommunicated, a disbeliever, and had endeavoured to cast down that which the Lord

Himself had set on high. The Bishop then informed the crowd that God was angry with the Governor, talked

about Moses, and dwelt with unction on the fact that the great lawgiver had been swift to slay.

In a peroration which, no doubt, went home to all, he called upon his hearers, under penalty of a heavy fine

and his displeasure, to seize the Governor, adding that if there was resistance 'he should kill his brother, his

friend, or his nearest relative.' [2] After these words he seized a banner from the hands of the astonished

officer who stood nearest to him, and stood forth, like another Phineas, surrounded by his clergy, all of whom

A most dramatic scene, and probably almost successful, had but the Bishop only reckoned with two things:

Firstly, he had forgotten that the Governor was an old Indian fighter, and ready for surprises; and, secondly,

he had not taken into account the usual apathy of the common people when their leaders fight. Dumbly and

quite unmoved the people stood, staring like armadillos at a snake, and made no sign. Then word was brought

that the Governor had left the church and was assembling a force of arquebusiers.

Surrounded only by clergymen, Don Bernardino had to yield, and yielded like a Levite, with a subterfuge. He

sent a priest to beg the magistrates to come to the Cathedral and reason with him. After a consultation this

was done, and Cardenas consented to abate his fury and exhale his wrath. He said that Holy Writ itself gave

leave to recur to force in selfdefence (but did not quote the text), and that the Governor had meditated a like

enterprise against himself; moreover, that, he being an excommunicated man, it became lawful for God's

After the scene was over, and the Bishop was escorted back to his palace by the magistrates, a second letter

came from Tucuman making plain his conduct to him after the manner of a friend. The rector of the Jesuits

also thought fit to remonstrate, and say that Cardenas had gone too far in attempting to assume the temporal

power. This sufficed to further strain the relations between the Bishop and the Jesuits.

As, even in Asuncion in 1643, it was unusual that the Governor should remain for ever under the ban of Holy

Mother Church, arbiters were chosen to discuss the matter, and provide means whereby the Bishop could

conveniently climb down. The arbiters absolved the Governor on the condition that he paid a fine of four

thousand arrobas [3] of yerba mat�, which in money amounted to eight thousand crowns. Quite naturally, the

Bishop refused to abide by the decision, replaced his adversary under the ban, and recommenced to preach

The higgling of the market not having proved effectual in the adjustment of the sum to be paid by the

Governor, a priest, one Juan Lozano, who had been condemned to imprisonment by his superiors for his

loose life, and who had taken refuge with the Bishop, hit on a stroke of veritable genius. At a conference

which took place between the Bishop and several notables of the place, including the rector of the Jesuits,

Lozano gave it as his opinion that, if the Governor refused to pay, a general interdict should be proclaimed.

The rector of the Jesuits retired indignantly, and 'P�re Lozano, retroussant sa robe le poursuivit en criant �

pleine t�te, et s'exprimant en des termes peu seans � sa profession.' [4] By this time Asuncion must have been

like a madhouse, for no one seems to have been astonished, or even to have thought his conduct singular. The

Bishop, always ready to take the worst advice, got ready for his task, and on Easter Eve embarked upon the

river, leaving his VicarGeneral under orders to proclaim the general ban. This was done, and the edict so

contrived as to catch the luckless Governor in every church. The practical effect was to close all the churches,

for to whatever church the Governor went the priest refused to celebrate the Mass. Several other persons were

mentioned in the ban, which was posted up below a crucifix in the choir of the Cathedral. As Don Bernardino

had omitted to state the particular offences for which they were condemned, the general confusion became

intense, and no one attended Mass, so that the churches were deserted. After a little some of the churches

opened in a clandestine manner, others remained closed, and the followers of the Bishop and the Governor

alternately assembled in a rabble, and threw stones at all the churches, dispensing their favours quite

impartially. The various religious Orders, not to be behindhand, also took sides, the Jesuits giving as their

opinion that the Governor, not having a war upon his back, was really excommunicated; the Dominicans

holding that the Bishop, in the general interest, ought to absolve him. He, armed with the opinion of the latter

Order, marched to the dwelling of the Bishop's VicarGeneral, and, having nailed up both doors and

windows, sent a trumpeter to tell him he should not leave his house till absolution had been granted. Still

nothing came of it, and then the Governor did what he should have done at first: he sent a statement of the

whole proceedings to the high court at Charcas. This high court (Audiencia) was situated right in the middle

of what is now Bolivia, miles away from Lima, half a world from Paraguay, at least two thousand miles from

Buenos Ayres, and separated from Chile by the whole Cordillera of the Andes. Even today the journey from

The Bishop, not to be outdone, also prepared a statement, in which he accused his adversary of all the crimes

that he could think of, and confirmed his statement with an oath. The chapter, thinking things were in an

impossible condition, besought that the fine laid on the excommunicated folk should be raised or lessened, as

it appeared to them there was not money in the town to satisfy it. Cardenas refused, and thus four months

elapsed. Soon after this arrived one Father Truxillo, of the Order of St. Francis, who came from Tucuman as

ViceProvincial. Cardenas, thinking, as they were both Franciscans, that Truxillo must needs be favourable

to his cause, made him his VicarGeneral, with power to bind and to unloosethat is, to free the

excommunicated folk from all their disabilities if, on examination, it seemed good to him. Truxillo, who was

quite unbiassed as to matters in Asuncion, looked into everything, and declared the Governor and everybody

ought to be absolved. He further gave it as his opinion that, the affair having gone to the high court at

Charcas, he could do nothing but give an interim decree. Don Bernardino heard the news at Itati, an Indian

village a few miles outside Asuncion. From thence he went to a somewhat larger village called Yaguaron,

and shut himself up in a convent, after declaring everyone (except the superior clergy) under the severest

censure of the Church if they should dare approach. Not a bad place for prayer and meditation is Yaguaron. A

score or two of little houses, built of straw and wood and thatched with palmleaves, straggle on the hillside

above the shores of a great camalotecovered [5] lake. Parrots scream noisily amongst the trees, and red

macaws hover like hawks over the little patches of maize and mandioca planted amongst the palms. Round

every house is set a grove of orangetrees, mingled with lemons, sweet limes, and guayabas. Inside the

houses all is so clean that you could eat from any floor with less repulsion than from the plates at a firstclass

hotel. A place where life slips on as listless and luxuriant as the growth of a banana, and where at evening

time, when the women of the place go to fetch water in a long line with earthen jars balanced upon their

heads, the golden age seems less improbable even than in Theocritus. To Yaguaron the higher clergy flocked

to intercede for the good people of Asuncion, all except Father Truxillo, who, knowing something of his

Bishop, did not go. That he was wise, events proved shortly. Two canonsDiego Ponce de Leon and

Fernando Sanchezhe imprisoned in their rooms, calling them traitors to their Bishop and their Church.

Deputations came from the capital to beg for their release, but all in vain. The Bishop answered them that he

had set his mind to purge his diocese of traitors; and the two canons remained in prison. After a detention

which lasted forty days, they escaped and fled to Corrientes, which must have looked upon Asuncion as a

vast madhouse. Truxillo, who seems to have been a man not quite so absolutely devoid of sense as the other

clergy, endeavoured to organize a religious coup d'�tat; but, most unfortunately, a letter he had written to

some of the saner clergy fell into the Bishop's hands. Excommunications now positively rained upon the land.

The Governor, the Jesuits, the Dominicans, each had their turn; but, curiously enough, the poorer people still

stood firm to Cardenas, thinking, no doubt, a man who treated all the richer sort so harshly must do

something for the poor. Nothing, however, was further from the thoughts of Cardenas, who thought the whole

world circled round himself. The Bishop's nephew having returned to Corrientes and his former naughty life,

Don Bernardino, casting about for another secretary, came on one Francisco Nieto, an apostate from the

Order of St. Francis, and living openly with an Indian woman, by whom he had a son. Him the Bishop made

his chaplain, then his confessor; and poor Nieto found himself obliged to send his Indian wife away in spite

of all his protests and his wish to live obscurely as he had been living before his elevation to the post of

secretary. A veritable beachcomber Father Francisco Nieto seems to have been, and the type of many a

European in Paraguay, who asks no better than to forget the tedium of our modern life and pass his days in a

So in Asuncion things went from bad to worse. Such trade as then existed was at a standstill, and bands of

starving people swarmed in the streets, whilst the incursions of the savage Indians daily became more

frequent. In fact, Asuncion was but a type of what the world would be under the domination of any of the

sects without the counterpoise of any civil power. The Governor, seeing the misery on every side,

determined, like an honest man, to pocket up his pride and reconcile himself with Cardenas at any price. So,

setting forth with all his staff, he came to Yaguaron. There, like a penitent, he had to bear a reprimand before

the assembled village and engage to pay a fine before the rancorous churchman would relieve him from the

ban. The weakness of the Governor had the effect that might have been expected, and heavy fines were laid

on all and sundry who had in any manner displeased the Bishop or leaned to the other side in the course of

Right in the middle of the struggle between the clerical and lay authorities, a band of over three hundred

Guaycur�s appeared before the town. Unluckily, all the chief officers of the garrison were excommunicated,

and thus incapable of doing anything to defend the place. Foolish as Cardenas most indubitably was, his folly

did not carry him so far as to leave the capital of his diocese quite undefended. Still, he would not give way

first, and only at the moment when the Indians seemed prepared to attack the town, at the entreaty of a 'pious

virgin', he raised the excommunication on the Governor and his officers for fifteen days. The Governor,

instead of, like a sensible man, seizing the Bishop and giving him to the cacique of the Guaycur�s, led out his

troops and drove the Indians off. That very night he found himself once more under the censure of the

Church, and the conflict with his opponent more bitter than at first. The Viceroy of Peru, the Marquis of

Mancera, indignant at the weakness of the Governor, wrote sharply to him, reprimanding him and telling him

at once to assert himself and force the Bishop to confine himself to matters spiritual. On the Governor's

attempt to reassert himself, the answer was a general interdict laying the entire capital under the Church's

ban. On this, he marched to Yaguaron with all his troops, resolved to take the Bishop prisoner; but he, seeing

the troops approach, went out at once, fell on the Governor's neck, and straightway absolved him.

After the absolution came a banquet, which must have been a little constrained, one might imagine, and even

less amusing than the regulation dinnerparty of the London season, where one sits between two halfnaked

and perspiring women eating halfraw meat and drinking fiery wines with the thermometer at eighty in the

shade. Thus disembarrassed from the Governor, Don Bernardino turned his attention to the Jesuits, and

signified to them that he intended to take the education of the young out of their hands. This was a mortal

affront to the Jesuits, as they have always understood that men, just as the other animals, can only learn

whilst young. Hard upon this new step, Cardenas issued an edict forbidding them to preach or hear

confessions. As for the Governor, the Bishop did not fear him, and the poorer people of Asuncion had always

inclined to the Bishop's party, either through terror of the Church's ban or from their natural instinct that the

But Cardenas saw clearly that, to deal as he wished with the Jesuits, he must entirely gain the Governor's

confidence. This he tried to do by sending to him one Father Lopez, Provincial of the Dominicans. This

Lopez was an able and apparently quite honest man, for he told the Governor that the wish of Cardenas was

to expel the Jesuits from Paraguay, and from their missions, warning him at the same time not to allow

himself to be made use of by the Bishop in his design. From that moment the two adversaries seemed to have

changed characters, and Don Gregorio became as cautious as a churchman, whereas the Bishop seemed to

To all the protestations of friendship which were addressed to him, the Governor answered so adroitly that

the Bishop fell into the trap, and thought he had secured a partner to help him in the expulsion of the Jesuits.

Finally, at Yaguaron, during a sermon, he formulated his celebrated charges against the Jesuits, which, set on

foot by him in 1644, eventually caused the expulsion of the whole Order from America, and, though refuted a

thousand times, still linger in the writing of all those who treat the question down to the present day. The

charges were seven in number, and so ingeniously contrived that royal, national, and domestic indignation

were all aroused by them. The first was that the Jesuits prevented the Indians from paying [6] their annual

taxes to the crown. Secondly, that the Jesuits kept back the tithes from Bishops and Archbishops. [7] Thirdly,

he said the Jesuits had rich mines in their possession, and that the product of these mines was all sent out of

the country to the general fund at Rome. This the Jesuits disproved on several occasions, but, as often

happens in such cases, proof was of no avail against the folly of mankind, to whom it seemed incredible that

the Jesuits should bury themselves in deserts to preach to savages, unless there was some countervailing

advantage to be gained. Even the fact that at the expulsion of the Company of Jesus from America no treasure

at all was found at any of their colleges or missions did not dispel the conviction that they owned rich mines.

The fourth charge was that the Jesuits were not particular about the secrets of the confessional, and that they

used the information thus acquired for their own selfish ends. Further, that Father Ruiz de Montoya had

acquired from the King, under a misapprehension, a royal edict, [8] giving the territory of the missions to the

Jesuits, thus taking the fruits of their conquest from the Spanish colonists. Fifthly, that the Jesuits entered

Paraguay possessed but of the clothes upon their backs, that they had made themselves into the sovereign

rulers of a great territory, but that he was going to expel them, as the Venetians had expelled them from

Venetia. [9] Sixthly, that even the Portuguese of S�o Paulo de Piritinanga had expelled them. [10] His last

assertion was that he himself, together with the Bishop of Tucuman and others, had secret orders from the

King to expel the Jesuits from their dioceses, but that the other Bishops lacked the courage which he

(Cardenas) was then about to show. He wound up all by saying that, once the Jesuits were gone, the King

would once again enjoy his rights, the Church be once again restored to freedom, and, lastly, that there would

be plenty of Indians for the settlers to enslave. Quite possibly enough, the public, ever generous to a fault

with other people's goods, cared little for the rights of a King who lived ten thousand miles away; and as for

the Church, it seems most probable they failed to see the peril that she ran. But when the Bishop spoke of

enslaving the Indians, they saw the Jesuits must go, for from the conquest the Jesuits had stood between the

settlers and their prey. All things considered, Don Bernardino made a remarkable discourse that Sunday

morning in the palmthatched village by the lake, for the echo of it still resounds in the religious world

Like other men after a notable pronouncement, it is most probable that Cardenas was unaware of the full

import of his words. Perhaps he thought (as speakers will) that all the best portions of his sermon had been

left unsaid. Be that as it may, he shortly turned his thoughts to other matters of more direct importance to

himself. In judging of his life, it should not be forgotten that, by his sermon at Yaguaron, he placed himself

upon the side of those who wanted to enslave the Indians. Perhaps he did not know this, and certainly his

popularity amongst the Indians outside the missions was enormous. His next adventure was to try and eject

the Jesuits from a farm they had, called San Isidro. The Governor having forbidden him to do so, he armed an

Outside Asuncion the LieutenantGovernor, Don Francisco Florez, met the Bishop's secretary, Father Nieto,

who informed him of the enterprise, exhorting him to enlist the sympathies of the Governor in so good a

cause. Florez, a better diplomatist than his commanding officer, seemed to approve, and naturally deceived

poor Father Nieto, who, like most hypocrites, became an easy prey to his own tactics when used against

Florez informed the Governor at once, and he sent to the Jesuits, and put them on their guard. Next day he

met the Bishop, and told him that his enterprise could not succeed, as the Jesuits were under arms. No doubt

he learned these artifices in his campaigns against the Indians of Arauco, or it may have been that, like others

who have had to strive with churchmen, he learned to beat them with their own controversial arms. The

Bishop fell completely into the snare, and, thinking the Governor was a fast friend, confided all his plans to

him for the expulsion of the Jesuits and the conquest of the mission territory. Just then Captain Don Pedro

Diaz del Valle came from La Plata, and gave Don Bernardino a new decision of the High Court of Charcas,

telling him to live in peace with all men, and govern his diocese with zeal. He certainly was zealous to an

extraordinary degree, if not judicious. Therefore, the very mention of the word 'zeal' must have been

peculiarly offensive to such a zealous man. The letter went on to say that all the fines he had exacted were

illegal, and commanded him to give back the yerba which he had extorted from his involuntary penitents, and

in the future live on better terms with all around him. To all of this he paid no notice, as was to be expected,

but, to avoid returning the yerba, sent a letter to his officers to have it burned. This letter, which he denied,

Seeing the Governor was bent on frustrating or on deceiving him, he tried to get from Don Sebastian Leon,

who held an office under the Governor, an edict of the Emperor Charles V., which he had heard was in the

archives, and which provided that, in case a Governor should die or be deposed, the notables of the place had

power to appoint an interim Governor to fill his place. If such a paper ever existed, it must have been a very

early document given by Charles V. at the foundation of the colony, for nothing was more opposed to the

traditions of Spanish policy throughout America. Don Sebastian Leon having informed the Governor, the

latter saw that things were coming to a crisis, and that either he or the Bishop would have to leave the place.

Not being sure of all his troops, and the Bishop having the populace upon his side, he sent to the Jesuit

missions for six hundred Indians. Thus the supremacy of the royal government fell to be supported by men

but just emerging from a seminomad life, who owed the tincture of civilization they possessed to the

On many occasions armies of Indians from the Jesuit missions rendered important services to the crown of

Spain: not only against the Portuguese, but against English corsairs, and in rebellions, as in the case of

Cardenas; or as when, in the year 1680, Philip V. wrote to the Governor of Buenos Ayres to garrison the port

with a contingent of Indians from the Jesuit reductions; in 1681, when the French attacked the port with a

squadron of fourandtwenty ships; and at the first siege of the Colonia, in 1678, when three thousand

Indians marched to the attack, accompanied by their Jesuit pastors, but under the command of Spanish

An army from the Jesuit missions consisted almost entirely of cavalry. It marched much like a South

American army of twenty years ago was wont to march. In front was driven the caballada, consisting of the

spare horses; then came the vanguard, composed of the best mounted soldiers, under their caciques. Then

followed the wives and women of the soldiers, driving the baggagemules, and lastly some herdsmen drove a

troop of cattle for the men to eat. When Jesuits accompanied the army, they did not enter into action, but were

most intrepid in succouring the wounded under fire, as Funes, in his 'Historia Civil del Paraguay', etc., [12]

relates when speaking of their conduct at the siege of the Colonia in 1703. For arms they carried lances,

slings, chuzos (broadpointed spears), lazos, and bolas, and had amongst them certain very long English guns

with rests to fire from, not very heavy, and of a good range. Each day the accompanying Jesuits said Mass,

and each town carried its particular banner before the troop. They generally camped, if possible, in the open

plain, both to avoid surprises and for convenience in guarding the cattle and the caballada. In all the

territories of South America no such quiet and wellbehaved soldiery was to be found; for in Chile, Peru,

Mexico, and Guatemala, the passage of an army was similar to the passing of a swarm of locusts in its effect.

Don Bernardino, on his side, was occupied in animating the populace against the Jesuits with all the fervour

of an Apostle. Naturally, he first commenced by launching his usual sentence of excommunication against

them, and having done so returned again to Yaguaron. This village, like other Paraguayan villages, many of

which in times gone by have been the scenes of stirring episodes, retains today but little to distinguish it.

Nature has proved too powerful in the longrun for men to fight against. On every side the woods seem ready

to overwhelm the place. Grass grows between the wooden steps of the neglected church; seibos, lapachos,

espinillos de olor, all bound together with lianas, encroach to the verges of the little clearings in which grows

mandioca, looking like a field of sticks. All day the parrots scream, and toucans and picaflores dart about; at

evening the monkeys howl in chorus; at night the jaguar prowls about, and giant bats fasten upon the

incautious sleeper, or, fixing themselves upon a horse, leave him exhausted in the morning with the loss of

When Cardenas used the place as a sort of Avignon from which to safely utter his anathemas, it must have

worn a different aspect. No doubt processions and ceremonies were continual, with carrying about the saints

in public, a custom which the Paraguayans irreverently refer to as 'sacando � luz los bultos'. [13] Messengers

(chasquis), no doubt, came and went perpetually, as is the custom in countries such as Paraguay, where news

is valuable and horseflesh cheap. Thereto flocked, to a moral certainty, all the broken soldiers who swarmed

in countries like Peru and Paraguay, with Indian caciques looking out for work to do when white men

quarrelled and throats were to be cut. Priests went and came, friars and missionaries; and Cardenas most

certainly, who loved effect, gave all his emerald ring to kiss, and made those promises which leaders of revolt

When the Indian contingent arrived, the Governor marched upon Yaguaron, although the air was positively

lurid with excommunications. The Bishop, rushing to the church, was intercepted by the Governor, who

seized his arm and tried to stop him. Cardenas struggled with him, and declared him excommunicated for

laying his hand upon the anointed of the Lord. But, most unfortunately, there was no FitzUrse at hand to rid

the Governor of so turbulent a priest. A mulatto [14] woman rushed to the Bishop's aid, together with some

priests. This gave him time to gain the altar and seize the Host, which he exposed at once to the public gaze,

and for the moment all present fell upon their knees. Turning to the Governor, he asked what he wanted with

armed men in a church. The Governor replied he had come to banish him from Paraguay, by order of the

Viceroy, for having infringed upon the temporal power. Cardenas, taken aback, replied he would obey, and,

turning to the people, took them all for witnesses. The Governor, no doubt thinking he was dealing with an

honest Araucan chief, retired. The Bishop immediately denounced the Governor in a furious sermon, after

which he left the church, carrying the Host in full procession, accompanied by the choir singing the 'Pange

Lingua', followed by a band of Indian women with their hair dishevelled, and carrying green branches in their

hands. He then returned to the church, and from the pulpit denounced the Governor, who, standing at the door

surrounded by a group of arquebusiers blowing their matches, answered him furiously.

The honours, so to speak, being thus equally divided, it remained for one side or the other to negotiate.

Cardenas, knowing himself much abler in negotiations than his adversary, proposed a conference, in which

he bore himself so skilfully that he made the Governor consent to dismiss his Indians, and allow him six days

to make his preparations for the road. This settled, at dead of night he set out for the capital. Arrived there, he

showed himself in public in his green hat, having upon his breast a little box of glass in which he bore the

Host. A band of priests escorted him, all with arms concealed beneath their cloaks, in the true spirit of the

Church militant. The bells were rung, and every effort strained to raise a tumult, but all in vain. He had to

At once he set about to fortify the place to stand a siege. In several places he constructed embrasures for

guns, and pierced the walls for musketry. But, thinking that his best defence lay in the folly of the peopleas

public men always have done, and dohe sent to the Cathedral for a statue of the Blessed Virgin, and

another of San Blas, and placed them at the gate. Then, remembering that calumny was a most serviceable

weapon, he put about the town a report that the Indians from the missions had pillaged Yaguaron, and that

they even then were marching on the place. Again recurring to the edict of Charles V., which he pretended to

have found, he issued a proclamation that, as the present Governor was excommunicated, and therefore could

not govern, the office being vacant, he intended to nominate another in his stead. His subsequent behaviour

Again both sides sent off a relation of their doings to the High Court of Charcas. Don Bernardino wrote in his

that the Jesuits had offered the Governor thirty thousand crowns, and placed a thousand men at his command,

if he would expel the Bishop from the country, under the belief that he (Don Bernardino) knew of their

hidden mines in the mission territory. His witnesses were students and priests, and one of these proving

recalcitrant, the Bishop had him heavily chained, and then suspended outside the convent of the Franciscans.

This drastic treatment had the desired effect, as torture always has with reasonable men, and the poor witness

signed, but afterwards protested, thus giving a good example in himself of the truth of the Spanish saying,

By this time the patience and longsuffering of the Governor were quite exhausted. He therefore sent to the

Bishop to say a ship was ready to take him down the river, and at the same time reminded him of his promise

at Yaguaron to obey the order of the Viceroy of Peru. He sent the message by the royal notary, Gomez de

Coyeso, who accordingly repaired to the convent of San Francisco. At the door a priest appeared, armed with

a javelin, who three times tried to wound the notary, on which the Governor stationed a band of fifty soldiers

at the convent gate, in spite of the presence of the statues of the Blessed Virgin and San Blas. Then, having

published an edict that the Bishop was deposed, he proceeded to elect another in his stead.

One of the canons, Don Cristobal Sanchez, who had governed the diocese during the interregnum before the

advent of Don Bernardino, still lived in retirement near the town. The Governor approached him with the

request that he would once more take the interim charge until the King should send another Bishop to replace

Cardenas. Sanchez consented, on the understanding that the Governor would guarantee his personal safety.

So it fell out that everything concurred to strengthen the hatred of the Bishop to the Jesuits. To the Jesuit

college came the Governor and all the notables, and, having taken Sanchez in procession through the streets,

they placed him on the Bishop's throne in the Cathedral, and invested him with all the power that he had held

before the coming of Don Bernardino Cardenas. The proclamation set forth by the Governor alluded to the

informality of the consecration of Don Bernardino, and to his actions during his time of power. At last the

Bishop saw that he must go. So, after launching a supreme anathema, and after having expressed his great

unwillingness to tarry longer in a city where half the population had incurred the censure of the Church, and

marked with a cross those churches where he permitted Mass to be celebrated, he went on board the ship.

Before embarking, he drew a silver bell from underneath his cloak, and to the sound of it he solemnly

proclaimed the town accursed. The bells of the Franciscan convent and the Bishop's palace, according to his

orders, all tolled loudly. This caused so much confusion that, in order to appease the tumult, the authorities

Entering the vessel, Don Bernardino sat himself upon the poop on a low stool, with all the clergy who were

faithful to him grouped about the deck. With him he had the sacred wafer in a glass box, and not far off a

group of sailors on the forecastle lounged about smoking and drinking mat� whilst they played at cards.

Someone reminded him it was not fitting that God's Body should thus be seen so near to sailors, and therefore

the Bishop, according to the custom of the Church in cases of accident or desecration, consumed the offended

Thus, in 1644, he took his first departure from the place where for the last two years he had brought certainly

rather a sword than peace. His friends assured the public that, at the moment he stepped on board the ship,

stars were seen to fall from heaven towards the church of St. Luke, and passed from thence to the episcopal

palace and disappeared; that at the same time a slight shock of earthquake had been experienced; that stones

had danced about, and several hills had trembled. The sun, quite naturally, had appeared bloodred; trouble

and desolation had entered every heart, and animals had prophesied woe and destruction, predicting ruin and

The events of the past two years in Paraguay had not been favourable to the conversion of the Indians. Not

only in the missions, where the neophytes had seen themselves obliged to furnish troops against their Bishop,

but in the territory of Paraguay itself, the Indians had not had a good example of how Christians carry out the

duties of their faith. As a general rule, the Indian (unlike the negro) cares little for dogma, but places his

belief entirely in good works. Perhaps on this account the Jesuits, also believers in good works, have had the

most success amongst them. Be that as it may, the Jesuits, after the departure of the Bishop, found that many

Whilst Jesuits in Paraguay were seeking to convert the Indians, and whilst the Governor, no doubt, was

thanking his stars for the absence of his rival, in Rome the question of the Bishop's consecration filled all

minds. From May 9, 1645, to October 2 of the same year no less than four congregations of the Propaganda

had been held about the case. The Pope himself was present at one of them. Nothing was arrived at till 1658,

when finally the consecration was declared in order, but not until Don Bernardino was appointed to another

Just about this time (164445) a rumour was set on foot that the Jesuits had discovered mines near their

reductions on the Paran�. These rumours were always set about when there was nothing else by means of

which to attack the Jesuits. An Indian by the name of Buenaventura, who had been a servant in a convent in

Buenos Ayres, on this occasion was the instrument used by their enemies. For a short time everyone believed

him, and excitement was intense; but, most unluckily, Buenaventura happened at the zenith of his notoriety to

run away with a married woman, and, being pursued, was brought to Buenos Ayres, and then in public

incontinently whipped. In any other country Buenaventura after his public whipping would have been

discredited, but a letter arrived from the Bishop of Paraguay, telling the Governor of Buenos Ayres that the

mines really existed. At that time a new Governor, one Don Jacinto de Lara, had just arrived. Being new to

America and its ways, he started out himself to try the question, and with fifty soldiers, taking Buenaventura

as his guide, went to the missions. As might have been expected, on the journey Buenaventura disappeared,

this time alone. 'Cette fuite lui donna beaucoup � penser,' says Charlevoix. But having gone so far, the

Father Diaz Ta�o, one of the best and hardestworking missionaries who ever entered Paraguay, besought

the Governor to satisfy himself and search their territory for gold and silver, and requested him to call upon

the Bishop for confirmation of the statements he had made. This he did, and then, accompanied by his

soldiers, began his search. He gave out that the first man to find a mine should be at once promoted to be

captain and have a large reward. After several days' march, and having found no mines, letters were brought

him from the Governor of Paraguay and from the Bishop. The first informed him that he had heard rumours

of mines, but nothing certain. The second declined to specify the mines, which thus were destined to remain

for ever, so to speak, in partibus. But he gave advice, and good advice is better than any mine, whether of

silver or of gold. He told the Governor to start by turning out the Jesuits, and he would find the profits of their

Whether this also made the Governor pensive I do not know, but, luckily, the Jesuits, who were concerned in

exposing the imposture, had come on Buenaventura, and brought him ironed to the Governor. He, after

having tried to make him confess his imposture without success, condemned him to be hung. The Jesuits,

with their accustomed humanity (or ingenuity), begged for his life. This was accorded to them, and once

Thus ended the journey of Don Jacinto, without profit to himself, except so far as the experience gained. No

doubt he saw and marked the Jesuit towns, the churches built of massive timber or of stone, and the contented

air of Indians and priests, which always struck all travellers in those times. He saw the countless herds of

cattle, the cultivated fields; enjoyed, no doubt for the first time since arriving in South America, the sense of

perfect safety, at that time to be experienced alone in Misiones. But in despite of his exposure of the

imposture, the rumour as to the existence of the mines never died out, and lingers even today, in spite of

Whilst this was going on in Misiones, in the remote and recentlyconverted district of the Itatines, in the

north of Paraguay, the example set by the Bishop had borne its fruit. The Indians became unmanageable. One

of the chiefs broke into open rebellion, and wounded a Jesuit father called Arenas at the very altarsteps.

Soon the general corruption of manners became almost universal throughout the district. This, I fancy, must

be taken to mean that the Indians reverted to polygamy, for the Jesuits always had trouble in this matter,

But most fortuitously, just as the general corruption gained all hearts, a tiger rushed into the town, and, after

The Jesuits, ever ready to take advantage of events like these, called on the Indians to see in the visitation of

The Indians, always as willing to submit as to revolt, submitted, and the good fathers 'prirent le parti de faire

They decoyed the chief, his nephew, and son, into another district, where they seized and shipped them off

two hundred leagues to a remote reduction across the Uruguay. The Spaniards used to say of Ferdinand VII.,

when he had committed any great barbarity, 'He is quite a King' ('Es mucho Rey'), and the Indians of the

Itatines esteemed the Jesuits for their 'coup d'autorit�' in the same manner as the Spaniards their King.

His usual luck attended Cardenas in his exile in Corrientes. This town formed part of the diocese of Buenos

Ayres, which happened to be vacant at the time. He therefore took upon himself to act just as he had acted in

Paraguayappointed officers of justice, held ordinations, and instituted a campaign against the Jesuits of the

Whilst he was thus occupied in his favourite pastime of usurping other people's functions, two citations were

sent him to appear before the High Court of Charcas. He disregarded them, and sent a statement of his case

by the hands of his nephew to the Bishop of Tucuman. In the letter he set forth all his complaints against the

Governor of Paraguay, calling him a violator of the Church, a heretic, and generally applying to him all those

terms in which a thwarted churchman usually exhales his rage. Mixed up with this was a detailed accusation

of the Jesuits, to whose account he laid all his misfortunes whilst in Paraguay. Lastly, he called upon the

Bishop of Tucuman to summon a provincial council to condemn the monstrous heresies which he attributed

to the Jesuits, reminding him that the Council of Trent had recommended the holding of frequent provincial

councils, and stating his opinion that, unless a council were called at once, the Bishop would incur a mortal

The answer Cardenas received from Tucuman was most ironically couched in the best style that his

longsuffering friend was able to command. After addressing Cardenas as 'your illustrious lordship', he

proceeded to demolish all his statements in such a manner as to argue that he had had much practice with

refractory priests in his own diocese. He told him that the Jesuits were the only Order in Paraguay that really

worked amongst the Indians. He reminded him that from that Order the 'second Paul', i.e., St. Francis Xavier,

had himself issued. He asked him whether, as a churchman, he thought the yearly sum of twelve thousand

crowns given by the King out of the treasury of Buenos Ayres towards the Jesuits' work was better saved, or

that the thousands of Indians whom the Jesuits had converted should be lost to God. And as to heresy, he said

he was no judge, leaving such matters to the Pope; but that no one accused the Jesuits of corruption in their

morals, or of any of the greater crimes to which the great fragility of human nature renders us liable. He

reminded him the Jesuits had made no accusation on their part, but always spoke of him with moderation and

respect. And as to a provincial council, he said that it was impossible, for the following good cause: The

Bishop of Misque [16] was too infirm to travel; the Bishop of La Paz was lately dead, and the see still vacant;

the Bishop of Buenos Ayres only just arrived, and too much occupied to leave his diocese. Therefore, the

only Bishops available were himself and Cardenas, and that they never would agree.

'Moreover,' he remarked, 'what is it that your illustrious lordship wishes me to do?

'God has only given me the charge of my own sheep. Your lordship knows as well as I do how a Bishop

He finished with a quotation, saying that a Bishop's state was not to lie 'in splendore vestium, sed morum;

What Cardenas replied is not set down in any history which has come under my observation, but what he

The Governor of Paraguay, not content with having put his case before the Supreme Court of Charcas, sent

also to the Council General of the Indies in Seville, detailing all the vagaries of the Bishop. The Jesuits also

During these preparations, and whilst everyone was off his guard, the Guaycur�s endeavoured to surprise the

capital, and would have done so had not some regiments of Guaran�s arrived in time from the mission

territory. This should have been an objectlesson to those who always tried to show the Jesuits in the light of

enemies to the authority of the King of Spain. Nothing, however, proved of the least avail, and though on

several occasions the Spanish power in Paraguay was only saved by the exertions of the Jesuits and their

Meanwhile, in Corrientes, Cardenas schemed night and day to return to Paraguay. In his own city of La Plata

naturally he had some friends, and these did all they could to get him reinstated. In spite of all their efforts, an

order came from Charcas for him to leave the city under pain of banishment. [17] Anyone but Cardenas

would have been disconcerted; he, though, pretended, as in the order he was still styled Bishop of Paraguay,

that before leaving for Charcas, to present himself before the court, he had to go to Asuncion to name a

VicarGeneral, and towards the end of 1646 he embarked upon the river for Paraguay.

The Governor was on the alert, and sent a vessel with orders to turn him back, which order was carried out in

Then came another citation to appear at Charcas, and an intimation that he was appointed Bishop of Popayan.

As Popayan (in New Granada) was at least three thousand miles from Asuncion, his joy at the appointment

His fortunes now seemed desperate; as he said himself in a letter to the King, 'at an advanced age he could

not undertake so great a journey'; and on every side his enemies seemed to have got the upper hand.

In 1648 a change came over everything. Don Gregorio Hinestrosa was removed from Paraguay, and a new

Governor, Don Diego Escobar de Osorio, appointed in his place. Immediately the news reached Cardenas he

set out for Paraguay. Arriving at Asuncion, his friends all met him and took him in procession to the

Cathedral. His first thought was to renew his persecution of the Jesuits. Most unfortunately for them, Don

Juan de Palafox, Bishop of Puebla de los Angeles in Mexico, who had himself in Mexico had many quarrels

with the Jesuits, wrote begging Cardenas and all the Bishops of South America to join against them.

This Palafox was afterwards beatified, and even in his lifetime enjoyed the reputation of a saint, so that his

letter greatly strengthened Cardenas. Notwithstanding this, Palafox in subsequent works of his during the

time that he was Bishop of Osma (in Spain) said many things in praise of the work done by the Jesuits in

The new Governor, himself a member of the Supreme Court of Charcas, had never been before in Paraguay,

and therefore resolved to treat the Bishop (as Don Gregorio had done) with every respect due to his station.

The Bishop wanted nothing better, and saw at once he had another fool to deal with. Therefore he made no

secret of his intention of not complying with the citation of the court at Charcas, and set himself at once to

preach against the Jesuits, and stir up popular resentment against them. Unluckily, proof was wanting of the

crimes he alleged they had committed, so he resorted to the device of getting a petition signed by all and

sundry, asking for the expulsion of the Order from Paraguay. Like all petitions, it was largely signed by

women and by children and by those who had never thought before about the matter, but liked the

opportunity to write their names after the names of others, as sheep go through a gap or members give their

This device having taken too much time, blank documents were passed about for all to write upon whatever

they imagined to the disadvantage of the Jesuits. By an untoward chance, a bundle of these, sent to the agent

of the Bishop in Spain, was taken on the voyage by an English corsair. The worthy pirate (no doubt a

Protestant) was, if we can believe the Jesuits, extremely scandalized at the bad faith of those who used such

So all seemed once again to smile upon Don Bernardino, who no doubt resumed his flagellations, his

midnight services, and his saying of two Masses, and once again became the idol of the people of Asuncion.

But in the north, in the wild district of Caaguayu, hard by the mountains of Mbaracaya, close to the great

yerbales, [18] the Jesuits had formed two towns amongst the Indians. These two towns were destined to be

the outposts of the country against the incursions of the wild Indians from the Chaco.

The Bishop prevailed upon the Governor to let him turn out the Jesuits and replace them by priests of another

Order. This being done, the Indians all deserted, leaving the district quite uninhabited.

The court at Charcas, hearing of this folly, sent an order to the Governor to send the Jesuits back. A year was

passed in ceaseless searching of the woods and deserts for the Indians, but only half of the population could

ever be persuaded to return, and Father Mansilla, the exmissionary, died of the hardships that he underwent.

From that date down to the time of Dr. Francia (circa 181235), the district remained a desert. Francia used it

as a penal settlement, and today, save for a few wild, wandering Indians, known as Caaguas, and a sparse

Meanwhile, the general indignation against the Jesuits seemed to infect all classes of the population.

Certainly, the citizens of Asuncion had good and sufficient causes of complaint against the Jesuits. On

several occasions the efforts of the Jesuits and their Indians alone had saved the capital from the wild Indians,

Popular hatred, to the full as idiotic as is popular applause, fell chiefly upon Father Diaz Ta�ohe who had

saved ten thousand Indians for the King of Spain in his celebrated retreat before the Mamelucos down the

Paran�and he was frequently insulted in the streets. Father Antonio Manquiano, a quiet and learned man,

was almost murdered in open day by a furious fanatic, who fell upon him with the openly expressed intent 'to

This was the moment Cardenas pitched on to declare the entire Order of the Jesuits excommunicated. As he

had been a year away from the scene of his former exploits, people were not so used to excommunications,

At this eventful juncture the Governor, Don Diego, died so suddenly that suspicions of his having been

poisoned were aroused. Scarce was he dead than all the population assembled at the palace to elect an interim

successor. This was a most important thing, as to communicate with Spain took, at the very shortest time,

about eight months. By acclamation the choice fell on the Bishop, who thus found himself head of the

The election was absolutely illegal, as the Spanish law provided that, if a Governor of Paraguay should

chance to die, the nomination of an interim successor should rest first with the Viceroy of Peru, and failing

Cardenas based his election on the pretended edict of the Emperor Charles V., but, if he had a copy of the

edict, never produced it. As usual, 'good men daring not, and wise men caring not', but only fools and

schemers taking part in the election, no serious opposition to his usurpation was encountered.

Cardenas never doubted for a moment that the function of a Governor was to govern, and he began at once to

Xarque, a Spanish writer, gives the following curious description of how he set about to get the people on his

Preaching one day in the Cathedral, after the consecration he turned towards the people, and, showing the

holy wafer, said, 'Do you believe, my brethren, that Jesus Christ is here?' All, being true believers, answered

as one man that such was their belief. In the same way as at a scientific lecture, when the lecturer holds up

some substance, and says, 'You all know well that calcium tungstate or barium hydrocyanide has this or the

other property,' the hearers nod assent like sheep, being afraid to contradict so glib a statement from so

Then said Cardenas, 'Believe as firmly that I have an order from the King to expel the Jesuits.' The people all

believed, and Cardenas forgot to tell them that by the expulsion of the Jesuits twenty thousand Indians would

pass into his power, whom he could then distribute amongst his friends as slaves, as he proposed to divide the

Indians of the missions amongst the Paraguayan notables to win them to his side.

Being at the head of everything in Asuncion, Cardenas no longer hesitated, but ordered an officer, Don Juan

de Vallejo Villasanti, with a troop of soldiers to march to the college of the Jesuits. This he did, and finding

the gates all barred, he burst them open, and, entering the college, signified to the rector an order from the

Governor (duly countersigned by the Bishop) to leave the city with all his priests, and to evacuate all the

missions on the Paran�. The rector answered that the Jesuits had a permission from Philip II., renewed by his

successors, to found a college, and Father Ta�o exhibited the documents. Villasanti, who had but little love

for documents, snatched the parchments from his hand, and the soldiers forced the Jesuits in a body to the

port like sheep. There they were tied and thrown into canoes almost without provisions, and sent off down the

river to Corrientes, the certain haven of the party in Paraguay which has got the worst of an election or a

Arrived in Corrientes, Don Manuel Cabral, a pious officer, received them in his house, and, curiously

enough, the population welcomed the Jesuits with enthusiasm, and pressed them earnestly to build a college

Their college at Asuncion was treated like a town taken by storm: pulpit and font, confessionals and doors, all

were torn down and burnt, and, with a view of justifying what was done, the Bishop's partisans spread a

The population, more artistic in its instincts than the Bishop, refused to allow the altar, which had been

brought from Spain, to be destroyed. Besides the altar, there were also statues of San Ignacio and San

Francisco Xavier. These the Bishop wished to turn into St. Peter and St. Paul. With this design he gave them

to an Indian carpenter to work upon. The poor man did his best, but only managed to turn out two monstrous

A statue of the Blessed Virgin which had the eyes turned up to heaven the Bishop wished to alter, and replace

the head by another with the eyes turned down to earth, as being more befitting to the statue's sex. The

people, less mad or superstitious than the Bishop, refused to allow it, and the image, too, was placed in the

In 1649 the expulsion of an Order so powerful as were the Jesuits caused some commotion through the world

at large. Miracles happened opportunely to strengthen waning faith. A fire placed round their church, though

it destroyed, refused to blacken; and ropes fixed to the tower of the church, although attached to windlasses,

refused to pull it down, so that the tower and church, though gutted, still remained almost intact, and, on the

Uneasy lies the head that wears a mitre, as poor Cardenas found out. His popularity suffered some decrease

by the lack of treasure found in the Jesuits' college, for he had always dangled millions in prospective before

the people's eyes to engage them on his side, and, most unluckily, he had no millions to bestow. So, to make

all things right, he sent Fray Diego Villalon [20] to Madrid to represent his interests.

The Jesuits upon their side were not inactive. By virtue of a brief of Gregory XIII. they had the privilege of

appointing an official called a judge conservator in cases where their honour or their possessions were

attacked. Therefore Father Alfonso de Ojeda was sent to Charcas to arrange about the case. At Charcas they

found that Cardenas had been before them, and had instituted proceedings against their Order in the High

Court. Father Pedro Nolasco, Superior of the Order of Mercy, was appointed judge conservator. He at once

summoned the Bishop to appear before him, and arranged to try the case and hear the evidence.

Cardenas having refused to appear, sentence went by default against him. The High Court, being convinced

that the pretended edict of the Emperor Charles V. did not exist, appointed Don Andres Garabito de Leon to

be interim CaptainGeneral of Paraguay, and gave him power, if necessary, to restore order by force of arms.

The court then issued a decree summoning Cardenas to appear at once at Charcas and give his reasons why

he had had himself made Governor and had expulsed the Jesuits from Paraguay. It then communicated with

the Marquis of Mancera, Viceroy of Peru, who quite concurred in its decision as to Cardenas.

Apparently upon the principle which prevails amongst Mohammedans of always appointing, first an officer,

and then a caliph to that officer to do the work, the High Court of Charcas also appointed a commander to

proceed to Paraguay, pending the time that Don Andres should feel inclined to start himself. As the caliph's

name was Sebastian de Leon, it is not improbable that he was a relation of the firstappointed man.

Don Sebastian de Leon seems to have been in Paraguay already, for both Charlevoix and Xarque agree that

he and his brothers, after the expulsion of the Jesuits by Cardenas, had retired to an estate some distance from

Asuncion. At the estate the news of his appointment reached him, and must have placed him in a most

On several occasions in the various rebellions which occurred in South America during the Spanish rule, men

were appointed to quell rebellions, pacify countries, and restore order, and all without an army or any forces

being placed at their command. This was the case with the celebrated La Gasca, who was sent from Spain to

put down the rebellion of Gonzalo Pizarro, and succeeded in so doing, though he left Spain without a single

soldier in his train. In this connection it is to be remembered that none of the rebellions in Spanish America

from the days of Charles I. (i.e., the Emperor Charles V.) to those of Charles III. were for the object of

separation from the metropolis, but merely risings against Governors sent out from Spain. It seems that both

in Peru and Paraguay the very name of the imperial power was able to draw hundreds of men to the standard

of whatever officer held a commission from Madrid, such as that held by Garabito de Leon or by La Gasca on

At first Don Sebastian did not show himself in Asuncion, but sent out messengers on every side to summon

soldiers, requisition horses, and collect provisions. He also sent to Corrientes to tell the Jesuits he was ready

Don Bernardino meanwhile was preparing for the great adventure of his life. He seems to have believed most

firmly that no power on earth had any right to remove him from the governorship of Paraguay. In a letter

which he addressed to Don Juan Romero de la Cruz [21] he says he is on the point of distinguishing himself

by heroic exploits and great victories; that he had on his side justice and force (a most uncommon

combination); that the entire capital was favourable to him; and that he was resolved neither to readmit the

Asuncion was once again convulsed, and all was preparation for the holy war. The Bishop had given out that

angels were to help him, and this so reassured his soldiers that they provided themselves with cords to bind

the Indians in the army of Don Sebastian Leon, thinking they would fall an easy prey to them. This matter of

the cords explains, perhaps, why the population of Asuncion was almost unanimous in favour of the Bishop.

In the army of Don Sebastian, as well as the militia of the province, marched three thousand Indians from the

Jesuit reductions on the Paran�. The Spaniards of the capital were all determined not to kill any of them, but

keep them alive for slaves, and hence the cords with which they armed themselves.

The sacred generalissimo led out his army from Asuncion in person, celebrating Mass himself, and then

heading his troops like many another Spanish ecclesiastic has done before and after him, and continued doing

The armies met not far from Luqu�, in a little plain known as the Campo Grande. An open plain with sandy

soil, which gave the horses a good footing, with several little stagnant pools in the centre where the wounded

men could drink and wash their wounds, with a most convenient forest on all sides for the deserters and the

cowards to hide in, made a good battlefield. The village of Luque, grouped round its church, and with a little

plaza in the middle in which sat Paraguayan women selling mandioca, chipa, [22] and rapadura, [23] with

sacks of maize and of mani, [24] stood on the summit of a little hill. Upon the plain the earth is red, and looks

as if a battle had been fought upon it and much blood spilt. In all directions run little paths, worn deep by the

feet of mules and horses, and in which the rider has to lift his feet as if he were going through a stream. To

Asuncion there leads one of the deepsunk roads planted with orange and paraiso [25] trees, constructed thus

(as Barco de la Centenera tells us in his 'Argentina') so as to be defensible against the Indians after the

On the Bishop's side hardly a soldier but thought himself an emissary of God, or doubted of the victory for a

moment in his heart. Angels themselves had promised victory to their leader, who, to make all things safe,

had issued a proclamation punishing surrender with the pain of death; so they stood quietly in array of battle

Upon his side, Don Sebastian Leon, seeing the attitude of the enemy, immediately ordered an advance, and

charged himself, with all his cavalry, upon the Bishop's men. They, with the firmness that fanatics so often

show, stood firmly in their ranks, thinking themselves invulnerable. Their valour proved but momentary, for

at the second charge they broke their ranks and fled. Flight turned to rout, and Don Sebastian having

commanded that they should not be pursued, they still fled on, no man pursuing them.

The Governor then entered the capital without resistance. On the plaza he stopped, and having gathered up

the wounded without respect of party, he sent them to the hospital. Then, having seen to the safety of the

town, he rode to the Cathedral to give thanks to God for having preserved him from the dangers of the fight.

Dressed in his robes and seated on his throne was Cardenas. Don Sebastian entered the church, dismounted,

and kissed his hand respectfully, like a true Spaniard, and asked him ceremoniously to deign to give him the

baton of the civil power. Cardenas answered not a word, but handed him the baton, and then retired,

The victory did not terminate the work of Don Sebastian. After a reasonable interval, and before witnesses,

he cited the Bishop to appear before the court of Charcas. The Bishop promised to obey, thinking he had

another Don Gregorio Hinostrosa to deal with, but quite determined never to comply, acting according to the

custom of Governors in South America, who, when an order reached them from Madrid, either absurd or

quite impossible to execute, solemnly answered, 'I obey, but I do not comply,' [26] saving by the phrase the

honour of their sovereigns and themselves. Upon their side the Jesuits pressed the judge conservator, Father

Nolasco, to issue his sentence, and free them from the charges under which they lay. This he did, and gave as

his opinion they were quite innocent of all that Cardenas had laid to their account.

As in a palace, [27] things go slow in Spain, and it was not till 1654 that a royal decision confirmed the

judgment of Nolasco, and freed the Jesuits from all the charges raised against them.

Order restored, Cardenas deprived of his usurped authority, and the Jesuits reinstated, the temporary

commission of Sebastian Leon was at an end. Therefore he retired again to plant his mandioca under his own

guayabatree. Yet feeling ran so high that he was hardly safe from the vengeance of the partisans of

Cardenas, so that he found himself once more obliged to summon the militia of the province, and lead them

to a perfunctory campaign against the Payaguas. These Indians the earlier historians of the conquest, Barco

de la Centenera and Rui Diaz de Guzman, describe as riverpirates, almost living in canoes, and dashing out

on any passing Spanish vessel that they thought weak enough. The Jesuits Montoya and Dobrizhoffer tell us

that they went naked, painted in many colours, with a hawk's or parrot's wing passed through the cartilage of

their left ear, and that they were, of all the Indians of Paraguay, the most indomitable. A few, when I knew

Paraguay some twenty years ago, hung round Asuncion, squalid and miserable, passing their time in fishing

in canoes, and as attached to their own mode of life as when the first discoverers called them 'sweetwater

pirates' and the 'most pestilent of all the Indians on the river Paraguay.' The Payaguas chastised, Don

Sebastian, upon one pretext or another, did not disband his troops, keeping them always by him, and thus

making the position of the Bishop quite untenable, till by degrees his followers fell away and left him almost

deserted and his party all dissolved. Seeing the game was up, the Bishop, after having named one Don Adrian

Cornejo as his suffragan, took his departure (1650) for Charcas to appear before the court. For eight

tumultuous years he had kept his bishopric in a perpetual turmoil, having been the evil genius of the land.

What sort of man he really was is hard today to judge, for Xarque, Villalon, Charlevoix, and Dean Funes,

[28] who chronicle his doings, were all, on one side or the other, partisans. The Jesuits condemn him as a

spoliator, the Franciscans hold him up as one who fought throughout his life for the honour of the founder of

their rule. Tracts, books, and pamphlets for and against him have been written in numbers, and in the history

of the times in Paraguay his name bulks large. One thing is certainthat the Indians loved and revered him,

and followed him up to the end. Even in Charcas, where he lived for years upon a pension of two thousand

crowns allowed him by the King whilst his case dragged its weary course to Rome, Madrid, back to Peru, and

then to Rome again, the Indians, when he appeared in public, greeted him with flowers. He may have been a

saint: so many men are saints, and the world knows them not. He may have been a schemer; but he made

nothing by his schemes except the barren honour of his consecration to the see of Paraguay. A preacher

certainly he was, able and willing to draw crowds, after the fashion of all those who have the gift of words.

Headstrong and obstinate, through a long life he hated vigorously, thinking all those who differed from him

were accursed of God. A strenuous member of the Church militant on earth, he was at least a personality, and

those who read the history of his time must reckon with, and take sides for or against, him after the fashion of

the men with whom he passed his life, who to a man revered him as a saint, or looked upon him as a devil

Arrived in Charcas, he soon fell on evil times, although at first he made some partisans. Still looking back to

Paraguay, he passed his time in drawing out petitions to the King; then, one by one, all his friends fell from

him, except some faithful Indians, who considered him a saint. His dreams of saintship were not fulfilled, for

his name never figured in the calendar. Years did not tame nor yet did hope ever completely leave him; for in

old books I find him always protesting, ever complaining, and still striving, till, in 1665, Philip IV. in pity

made him Bishop of Santa Cruz. A sentence from the registers of the Consistory at Rome informs us that, as

Bishop of La Paz, in his own province of the Charcas, he left off troubling, and rested from his agitated life.

[5] Camalote is a species of waterlily which forms a thick covering on stagnant rivers and lakes in Paraguay

[6] This was untrue, as the Jesuit missions were not at that time (1644) apportioned into parishes under the

authority of the Jesuits, and such tribute as then was customary was all collected by government officials.

[7] This was also untrue, as the tithes were never regulated in Paraguay till 1649.

[8] This accusation was quite untrue, for the edict referred to was not obtained under misapprehension, but

after a complete exposition of all the facts. Moreover, it was subsequently renewed on several occasions by

[9] The Venetians did not expel the Jesuits, they left Venetia of their own accord.

[10] Fathers Montoya and Ta�o went respectively to Rome and to Madrid to lay the sorrows of the Indians

before the King and Pope. Having obtained the edict from the King that Cardenas referred to, and a brief

from the Pope (Urban VIII.) forbidding slavery, they had the hardihood to appear within the city of S�o Paulo

and affix both edicts to the church door. As was to be expected, the Paulistas immediately expelled them

from their territories, and hence the semitruth of the sixth charge made by Bishop Cardenas.

[12] The testimony of Funes is as follows: '� juicio de testigo ocular no es m�s admirable la sangre fria de

[13] Literally, 'taking out the blocks to air'. The effigies are made of hard and heavy wood, and I remember

once in Concepcion de Paraguay assisting on a sweltering day to carry a Madonna weighing about five

[17] 'Que lo hagan salir de nuestros Reynos y Se�orios como ageno y estra�o, por importar assi para la

[18] A yerbal is a forest chiefly composed of the Ilex Paraguayensis, from the leaves of which the yerba mat�,

[20] This Villalon has left some curious memoirs in the case which he submitted to the Council of the Indies

[23] Rapadura is a kind of coarse sugar, generally sold in little pyramidshaped lumps, done up in a banana

[28] Dean Funes, in his 'Ensayo de la Historia Civil del Paraguay, Buenos Ayres y Tucuman' (book ii., cap. i.,

p. 10), says he was 'Dotado de un temperamento muy facil de inflamarse, de una imaginacion viva, de una

Description of the mission territory and towns founded by the Jesuits Their endeavours to attract the

Indians Religious feasts and processions Agricultural and commercial organizations

WITH THE DEATH of Cardenas the most dangerous enemy the Jesuits ever had in Paraguay had

disappeared. They worsted him, and drove him from his see; but the movement set on foot by him and the

calumnies he levelled at their Order still remained and flourished, and in the end prevailed against them and

drove them from the land. A calumny is hard to kill; mankind in general cherish it; they never let it die, and,

if it languishes, resuscitate it under another form; they hold to it in evil and in good repute, so that, once fairly

rooted, it goes on growing like a foresttree throughout the centuries. Therefore, the charges against the

Jesuits in Paraguay, which Cardenas first started, are with us still, and warp our judgment as to the doings of

But neither calumny nor the raids of the Paulistas, nor yet the jealousy of the Spanish settlers in Paraguay,

deterred the Jesuits from the prosecution of their task. The missions gradually extended, till they ranged from

Santa Maria la Mayor, in Paraguay, to San Miguel, in what is now Brazil; and from Jesus, upon the Paran�, to

Yapey�, upon the Uruguay. Most of the country, with the exception of the missions of Jesus and Trinidad,

upon the Paran�, which today, at least, are only clearings in the primeval forest, is composed of open rolling

plains, with wood upon the banks of all the streams. Covered as it was and is with fine, short grass, it formed

excellent cattlebreeding country, and hence the great industry of the Indians was to look after stock. The

country being so favourable for cattle, they multiplied immoderately, so that in the various establishments

(estancias), according to the inventories published by Brabo, their numbers were immense. [1]

These open rolling plains, called by the natives campos quebrantados, are generally studded thickly with

stunted palms called yatais, [2] but not so thickly as to spoil the grass which covers them in spring and early

summer, and even in winter they remain good feeding ground. Thick clumps of hardwood trees [3] break up

the prairie here and there into peninsulas and islands, and in the hollows and rocky valleys bushy palmetto

rises above a horse's knees. In general the soil is of a rich bright red, which, gleaming through the trees, gives

a peculiarly warm colour to the land. All the French Jesuit writers refer to it as 'la terre rouge des missions'.

The Jesuits used it and another earth of a yellow shade for painting their churches and their houses in the

mission territory. Its composition is rather sandy, though after rain it makes thick mud, and renders travelling

most laborious. The flowers and shrubs of the territory are quite as interesting and still more varied than are

the trees. Many of the Jesuits were botanists, and the works of Fathers Montenegro, [4] Sigismund Asperger

and Lozano are most curious, and give descriptions and lists of many of the plants unclassified even today.

The celebrated Bonpland, so long detained by Dr. Francia in Paraguay, unfortunately never published

anything; but modern writers [5] have done much, though still the flora of the whole country is but most

imperfectly known, and much remains to do before it is all classified. The Croton succirubrus (from which a

resin known as 'sangrededrago' is extracted), the sumaha (bombaxthe fruit of which yields a fine

vegetable silk), the erythroxylon or coca of Paraguay, the incienso or incensetree of the Jesuits, are some of

the most remarkable of the myriad shrubs. But if the shrubs are myriad, the flowers are past the power of man

to count. Lianas, with their yellow and red and purple clusters of blossoms, like enormous bunches of grapes,

hang from the foresttrees. In the open glades upon the nandubays, [6] the algarrobos, and the espinillos,

hang various Orchidace�, [7] called by the natives 'flores del aire', covering the trees with their aerial roots,

their hanging blossoms, and their foliage of tender green. The Labiat�, Composit�, Datur�, Umbellifer�,

Convolvulace�, and many other species, cover the ground in spring or run up trees and bushes after the

The lakes and backwaters of rivers are covered with myriads of waterlilies (all lumped together by the

natives as 'camalote'), whilst in the woodland pools the Victoria Regis carpets the water with its giant leaves.

In every wood the orange and the lemon with the sweet lime have become wild, and form great thickets. Each

farm and 'rancho' has its orangegrove, beneath the shade of which I have so often camped, that the scent of

orangeblossom always brings back to me the dense primeval woods, the silent plains, the quiet Indians, and

the unnavigated waterways, in which the alligators basked. Except the Sierra de Mbaracayu, [8] on the

northeast, throughout the mission territory there are no mountains of considerable height; and through the

middle of the country run the rivers Paran� and Uruguay, the latter forming the boundary on the southeast.

The rolling plains and woods alternate with great marshes called esteros, which in some districts, as of that of

Neembucu, cover large tracts of land, forming in winter an almost impenetrable morass, and in the spring and

early summer excellent feedingground for sheep. Throughout the territory the climate is healthy, except

towards the woody northern hills. With this rich territory and the false reports of mines, which even

unsuccessful exploration could not dispel, it is but natural that the Jesuits were hated far and wide. It must

have been annoying to a society composed, as were the greater portion of the Spanish settlements in

Paraguay, of adventurers, who treated the Indians as brute beasts, [9] to see a preserve of Indians separated

from their territory by no great barrier of Nature, and still beyond their power. [10] Bonpland, in speaking of

the country, says: 'The whole of the land exceeds description; at every step one meets with things useful and

new in natural history.' Such also was the opinion of the French travellers Demersay and D'Orbigny; of

Colonel du Graty, whose interesting work ('La R�publique du Paraguay', Brussels, 1862) is one of the best on

the country; the recent French explorer Bourgade la Dardye, and of all those who have ever visited the

In this rich territory the Jesuits, when, after infinite trouble, they had united a sufficient [12] quantity of

Indians, formed them into townships, almost all of which were built upon one plan. In Paraguay itself only

some three or four remain; but they remain so well preserved that, by the help of contemporary accounts, it is

easy to reconstruct almost exactly what the missions must have been like during the Jesuits' rule. [13]

Built round a square, the church and storehouses filled one end, and the dwellings of the Indians, formed of

sundried bricks or wattled canes in three long penthouses, completed the three sides. In general, the houses

were of enormous length, after the fashion of a St. Simonian phalanstery, or of a 'miners' row' in Lanarkshire.

Each family had its own apartments, which were but separated from the apartments of the next by a

lathandplaster wall, called in Spanish tabique; but one veranda and one roof served for a hundred or more

families. The space in the middle of the square was carpeted with the finest grass, kept short by being

pastured close by sheep. The churches, sometimes built of stone, and sometimes of the hard woods with

which the country abounds, were beyond all description splendid, taking into consideration the remoteness of

the Jesuit towns from the outside world. Frequentlyas, for instance, in the mission of Los Apostolesthe

churches had three aisles, and were adorned with lofty towers, rich altars, [14] superaltars, and statuary,

brought at great expense from Italy and Spain. Though the churches were often built of stone, it was not usual

for the houses of the Indians to be so built; but in situations where stone was plentiful, as at the mission of

San Borja, the houses of the Jesuits were of masonry, with verandas held up by columns, and with staircases

with balustrades of sculptured stone. [15] The ordinary groundplan of the priest's house was that of the

Spanish Moorish dwelling, so like in all its details to a Roman house at Pompeii or at Herculaneum. Built

round a square courtyard, with a fountain in the middle, the Jesuits' house formed but a portion of a sort of

inner town, which was surrounded by a wall, in which a gate, closed by a porter's lodge, communicated with

the outside world. Within the wall was situated the church (although it had an entrance to the plaza), the

rooms of the inferior priest, a garden, a guestchamber, stables, and a storehouse, in which were kept the

arms belonging to the town, the corn, flour, and wool, and the provisions necessary for life in a remote and

often dangerous place. In every case the houses were of one story; the furniture was modest, and in general

homemade; in every room hung images and pious pictures, the latter often painted by the Indians

The greatest difficulty which the Jesuits had to face was the natural indolence of their neophytes. Quite

unaccustomed as they were to regular work of any kind, the ordinary European system, as practised in the

Spanish settlements, promptly reduced them to despair, and often killed them off in hundreds. Therefore the

Jesuits instituted the semicommunal system of agriculture and of public works with which their name will

The celebrated Dr. Francia, dictator of Paraguay, used to refer to the Jesuits as 'cunning rogues', [18] and, as

he certainly himself was versed in every phase of cunningness, perhaps his estimateto some extent, at

leastwas just. A rogue in politics is but a man who disagrees with you; but, still, it wanted no little

knowledge of mankind to present a daily task to men, unversed in any kind of labour, as of the nature of a

pleasure in itself. The difficulty was enormous, as the Indians seemed never to have come under the primeval

curse, but passed their lives in wandering about, occasionally cultivating just sufficient for their needs.

Whether a missionary, Jesuit, or Jansenist, Protestant, Catholic, or Mohammedan, does well in forcing his

own mode of life and faith on those who live a happier, freer life than any his instructor can hold out to them

is a moot point. Only the future can resolve the question, and judge of what we do todayno doubt with

good intentions, but with the ignorance born of our selfconceit. Much of the misery of the world has been

brought about with good intentions; but of the Jesuits, at least, it can be said that what they did in Paraguay

did not spread death and extinction to the tribes with whom they dealt. [19] So to the task of agriculture the

Jesuits marshalled their neophytes to the sound of music, and in procession to the fields, with a saint borne

high aloft, the community each day at sunrise took its way. Along the paths, at stated intervals, were shrines

of saints, and before each of them they prayed, and between each shrine sang hymns. [20] As the procession

advanced, it became gradually smaller as groups of Indians dropped off to work the various fields, and finally

the priest and acolyte with the musicians returned alone. [21] At midday, before eating, they all united and

sang hymns, and then, after their meal and siesta, returned to work till sundown, when the procession again

reformed, and the labourers, singing, returned to their abodes. A pleasing and Arcadian style of tillage, and

different from the system of the 'swinked' labourer in more northern climes. But even then the hymnal day

was not concluded; for after a brief rest they all repaired to church to sing the 'rosary', and then to sup and

bed. On rainy days they worked at other industries in the same halfArcadian, halfcommunistic manner,

only they sang their hymns in church instead of in the fields. The system was so different to that under which

the Indians endured their lives in the 'encomiendas' and the 'mitas' of the Spanish settlements, that the fact

alone is sufficient to account for much of the contemporary hatred which the Jesuits incurred.

Imagine a semicommunistic settlement set close to the borders of Rhodesia, in which thousands of Kaffirs

passed a life analogous to that passed by the Indians of the missionscared for and fed by the community,

looked after in every smallest particular of their livesand what a flood of calumny would be let loose upon

the unfortunate devisers of the scheme! Firstly, to withdraw thousands of 'natives' from the labour market

would be a crime against all progress, and then to treat them kindly would be heresy, and to seclude them

from the contamination of the scum of Europe in the settlements would be termed unnatural; for we know

that native races derive most benefit from free competition with the least fitted of our population to instruct.

But besides agriculture the enormous cattlefarms [22] of the mission territory gave occupation to many of

the neophytes. The life on cattlefarms gave less scope for supervision, and we may suppose that the herders

and the cattlemen were more like Gauchos; but Gauchos under religious discipline, halfcentaurs in the field,

sitting a plunging halfwild colt as if they were part of him, and when on foot at home submissive to the

Jesuits, constant in church, but not so fierce and bloodthirsty as their descendants soon became after the

As well as agriculture and estancia life, the Jesuits had introduced amongst the Indians most of the arts and

trades of Europe. By the inventories taken by Bucareli, Viceroy of Buenos Ayres, at the expulsion of the

Order, we find that they wove cotton largely; sometimes they made as much as eight thousand five hundred

yards of cloth in a single town in the space of two or three months. [23] And, in addition to weaving, they had

tanneries, carpenters' shops, tailors, hatmakers, coopers, cordagemakers, boatbuilders, cartwrights,

joiners, and almost every industry useful and necessary to life. They also made arms and powder, musical

instruments, and had silversmiths, musicians, painters, turners, and printers to work their printingpresses:

for many books were printed at the missions, [24] and they produced manuscripts as finely executed as those

All the 'estancias', the agricultural lands and workshops were, so to speak, the property of the community;

that is to say, the community worked them in common, was fed and maintained by their productions, the

whole under the direction of the two Jesuits who lived in every town. A portion called tupinambal/ in Guaran�

was set aside especially for the maintenance of orphans and of widows. The cattle and the horses, with the

exception of 'los caballos del santo', destined for show at feasts, were also used in common. The surplus of

the capital was reserved to purchase necessary commodities from Buenos Ayres and from Spain. [25] Each

family received from the common stock sufficient for its maintenance during good conduct, for the Jesuits

held in its entirety the Pauline dictum that if a man will not work, then neither shall he eat. But as they held it,

so they practised it themselves, for their lives were most laboriousteaching and preaching, and acting as

overseers to the Indians in their labours continually, from the first moment of their arrival at the missions till

their death. Thus, if the mayor of the township complained of any man for remissness at his work, he

To inculcate habits of providence amongst the Indians, always inclined to consume whatever was given to

them and go fasting afterwards, they issued the provisions but once a week, and when they killed their oxen

forced the Indians to 'jerk' [26] a certain quantity of beef to last throughout the week. Vegetables each family

was obliged to plant both in their gardens and in the common fields; and all that were not actually consumed

Certain of the Indians owned their own cows and horses, and had gardens in which they worked; but all the

product was obliged to be disposed of to the Jesuits for the common good, and in exchange for them they

gave knives, scissors, cloth, and lookingglasses, and other articles made in the outside world. Clothes were

served out to every Indian, and consisted for the men of trousers, coarse 'ponchos', straw hats or caps, and

shirts; but neither men nor women ever wore shoes, and the sole costume of the latter was the Guaran� tipoi,

[27] a long and sleeveless shift cut rather high, and with coarse embroidery round the shoulders, and made of

a rough cotton cloth. For ornaments they had glass beads and rosaries of brass or silver, with silver rings, and

necklaces of glass or horn, from which hung crucifixes. Thus food and clothing cost the Jesuits [28] (or the

community) but little, and a rude plenty was the order of the land. The greatest luxury of the Indians was

mat�, and to produce it they worked in the yerbales in the same way in which they worked their fieldsin

This, then, was the system by means of which the Jesuits succeeded, without employing force of any kind,

which in their case would have been quite impossible, lost as they were amongst the crowd of Indians, in

making the Guaran�s endure the yoke of toil. The semicommunal character of their rule accounts for the

hostility of Liberals who, like Azara, saw in competition the best road to progress, but who, like him, in their

In addition to the means described, the Jesuits had recourse to frequent religious feasts, for which the

calendar gave them full scope, so that the life in a Jesuit mission was much diversified and rendered pleasant

to the Indians, who have a rooted love of show. Each mission had, of course, its patron saint, [29] and on his

day nobody worked, whilst all was joyfulness and simple mirth. At break of day a discharge of rockets and of

firearms and peals upon the bells announced the joyful morn. Then the whole population flocked to church to

listen to an early mass. Those who could find no room inside the church stood in long lines outside the door,

which remained open during the ceremony. Mass over, each one ran to prepare himself for his part in the

function, the Jesuits having taken care, by multiplying offices and employments, to leave no man without a

direct share in all the others did. [30] The humblest and the highest had their part, and the heaviest burden, no

doubt, fell upon the two Jesuits, [31] who were answerable for all. The foremost duty was to get the

procession ready for the march, and saddle 'los caballos del santo' [32] to serve as escort, mounted by Indians

The inventory of the town of Los Apostoles [33] enables us to reconstruct, with some attempt at accuracy,

how the procession was formed and how it took its way. All the militia of the town were in attendance,

mounted on their best horses, and armed with lances (chuzos), lazo, bolas, and a few with guns. The officers

of the Indians rode at their head, dressed out in gorgeous clothes, and troops of dancers, at stated intervals,

performed a sort of Pyrrhic dance between the squadrons of the cavalry. [34] In the front of all rode on a

white horse the Alferez Real, [35] dressed in a doublet of blue velvet richly laced with gold, a waistcoat of

brocade, and with short velvet breeches gartered with silver lace; upon his feet shoes decked with silver

buckles, and the whole scheme completed by a goldlaced hat. In his right hand he held the royal standard

fastened to a long cane which ended in a silver knob. A sword was by his side, which, as he only could have

worn it on such occasions, and as the 'horses of the saint' were not unlikely as ticklish as most horses of the

prairies of Entre Rios and Corrientes are wont to be, must have embarrassed him considerably. Behind him

came the Corregidor, arrayed in yellow satin, with a silk waistcoat and gold buttons, breeches of yellow

velvet, and a hat equal in magnificence to that worn by his bold compeer. The two Alcaldes, less violently

dressed, wore strawcoloured silk suits, with satin waistcoats of the same colour, and hats turned up with

gold. Other officials, as the Commissario, Maestre de Campo, and the Sargento Mayor, were quite as gaily

dressed in scarlet coats, with crimson damask waistcoats trimmed with silver lace, [36] red breeches, and

black hats adorned with heavy lace. In the bright Paraguayan sunshine, with the primeval forest for a

background, or in some mission in the midst of a vast plain beside the Paran�, they must have looked as

gorgeous as a flight of parrots from the neighbouring woods, and have made a Turneresque effect, ambling

along, a blaze of colours, quite as selfsatisfied in their finery as if 'the rainbow had been entail settled on

them and their heirs male.' Quite probably their broad, flat noses, and their long, lank hair, their faces fixed

immovably, as if they were carved in nandubay, contrasted strangely with their finery. But there were none to

judgeno one to make remarks; most likely all was conscience and tender heart, and not their bitterest

As in the inventories of the thirty towns I find no mention either of stockings or of shoes for Indians, with the

exception of the low shoes and buckles worn by the Alferez Real, it seems the gorgeous costumes ended at

the knee, and that these popinjays rode barefoot, with, perhaps, large iron Gaucho spurs fastened by strips of

marehide round their ankles, and hanging down below their naked feet. But, not content with the procession

of the elders in parrot guise, there was a parody of parodies in the cabildo infantil, the band composed of

children, who, with the selfsame titles as their elders, and in the selfsame clothes adjusted to their size,

rode close upon their heels. Lastly, as Charlevoix tells us, came 'des lions et des tigres, mais bien enchain�s

afin qu'ils ne troublerent point la f�te,' and so the whole procession took its way towards the church.

The church, all hung with velvet and brocade, was all ablaze with lights, and fumes of incense (no doubt

necessary) almost obscured the nave. Upon the right and left hand of the choir (which, as is usual in Spain,

was in the middle of the church) the younger Indians were seated all in rows, the boys and girls being

separated, as was the custom in all the missions of the Jesuits, who, no doubt, were convinced of the

advisability of the saying that 'entre santa y santo, pared de cal y canto.' [37] The Indians who had some

office, and who wore the clothes [38] I have described, were seated or knelt in rows, and at the outside stood

the people of the town dressed in white cotton, their simple clothes, no doubt, forming an effective

background to their more particoloured brethren kneeling in the front. Throughout the church the men and

women were separated, and if a rumour of an incursion of Paulistas was in the air, the Indians carried arms

even in the sacred buildings and at the solemn feasts. Mass was celebrated with a full band, the oboe, fagot,

lute, harp, cornet, clarinet, violin, viola, and all other kinds of music, figuring in the inventories of the thirty

towns. Indeed, in two of the inventories [39] an opera called 'Santiago' is mentioned, which had special

costumes and properties to put it on the stage. Mass over, the procession was reconstituted outside the church,

and after parading once more through the town broke up, and the Indians devoted the night to feasting, and

Such were the outward arts with which the Jesuits sought to attach the simple people, to whom they stood in

the position not only of pastors and masters both in one, but also as protectors from the Paulistas on one side,

and on the other from the Spaniards of the settlements, who, with their encomiendas and their European

system of free competition between man and man, were perhaps unknowingly the direst enemies of the whole

Indian race. There is, as it would seem, implanted in the minds of almost all primitive peoples, such as the

Guaran�s, a solidarity, a clinging kinship, which if once broken down by competition, unrestrained after our

modern fashion, inevitably leads to their decay. Hence the keen hatred to the Chinese in California and in

Australia. Naturally, those whom we hate, and in a measure fear, we also vilify, and this has given rise to all

those accusations of Oriental vice (as if the vice of any Oriental, however much depraved, was comparable to

that of citizens of Paris or of London), of barbarism, and the like, so freely levelled against the unfortunate

In Paraguay nothing is more remarkable in a market in the country than the way in which the people will not

undersell each other, even refusing to part with goods a fraction lower than the price which they consider fair.

[40] It may be that the Jesuits would have done better to endeavour to equip their neophytes more fully, so as

to take their place in the battle of the world. It may be that the simple, happy lives they led were too opposed

to the general scheme of outside human life to find acceptance or a place in our cosmogony. But one thing I

am sure ofthat the innocent delight of the poor Indian Alferez Real, mounted upon his horse, dressed in his

motley, barefooted, and overshadowed by his goldlaced hat, was as entire as if he had eaten of all the fruits

of all the trees of knowledge of his time, and so perhaps the Jesuits were wise.

Strangely enoughbut, then, how strangely all extremes meet in humanity!the Jesuits alone (at least, in

Paraguay) seem to have apprehended, as the Arabs certainly have done from immemorial time, that the first

duty of a man is to enjoy his life. Art, science, literature, ambitionall the frivolities with which men occupy

themselveshave their due place; but life is first, and in some strange, mysterious way the Jesuits felt it,

though, no doubt, they would have been the first to deny it with a thousand oaths. But in a Jesuit mission all

was not feasting or processioning, for with such neighbours as the Mamelucos they had to keep themselves

prepared. [41] As for their better government in home affairs each mission had its police, with officers [42]

chosen by the Jesuits amongst the Indians, so for exterior defence they had militia, and in it the caciques [43]

of the different tribes held principal command. Most likely over them, or at their elbows, were set priests who

before entering the Company of Jesus had been soldiers: for there were many such amongst the Jesuits. As

their own founder once had been a soldier, so the Company was popular amongst those soldiers who from

some cause or other had changed their swords to crucifixes, and taken service in the ranks of Christ. [44] As

it was most important, both for defence and policy, to keep the caciques content, they were distinguished by

better treatment than the others in many different ways. Their food was more abundant, and a guard of

Indians was on perpetual duty round the houses where they lived; these they employed as servants and as

messengers to summon distant companies of Indians to the field. Their method of organization must have

been like that of the Boers or of the Arabs; for every Indian belonged to a company, which now and then was

brought together for evolutions in the field or for a period of training, after the fashion of our militia or the

German Landwehr. Perhaps this system of an armed militia, always ready for the field, was what, above all

other reasons, enabled their detractors to represent the Jesuits as feared and unpopular. Why, it was asked,

does this community of priests maintain an army in its territories? No one remembered that if such were not

the case the missions could not have existed for a year without a force to defend their borders from the

Paulistas. Everyone forgot that Fathers Montoya and Del Ta�o had obtained special permission from the

King for the Indians of the missions to bear arms; and, as no human being is grateful for anything but

contumelious treatment, the Spanish settlers conveniently forgot how many times a Jesuit army had saved

their territories. The body of three thousand Guaran�s sent at the expense of the Company to assist the

Spaniards against the Portuguese at the attack upon the Colonia del Sacramento [45] on the river Plate, in

1678, was quite forgotten, together with the innumerable contingents sent by the Jesuits at the demand of

Spanish governors against the Chaco Indians, the Payaguas, and even against the distant Calchaquis, in what

is now the province of Jujuy. Even when an English pirate, called in the Spanish histories Roque Barloque

(explained by some to be plain Richard Barlow), appeared off Buenos Ayres, the undaunted neophytes shrank

not a moment from going to the assistance of their coreligionists against the 'Lutheran dog'. [46] Lastly, all

Spanish governors and writers, both contemporaneous and at the end of the eighteenth century, seem to forget

that if the Jesuits had an army of neophytes within their territory the fact was known and approved of at the

court of Spain. [47] But it appears that Calvin had many coadjutors in his policy of 'Jesuitas aut necandi aut

calumniis opponendi sunt.' [48] When a Jesuit army took the field, driving before it sufficient cattle to subsist

upon, and with its caballada of spare horses upon its flank, it must have resembled many a Gaucho army I

have seen in Entre Rios fiveandtwenty years ago. The only difference seems to have been that the Gauchos

of yesterday did not use bows and arrows, although they might have done so with as much benefit to

themselves, and no more danger to their enemies, than was occasioned by the rusty, illconditioned guns they

used to bear. The Indians were armed with bows, and in their expeditions each Indian carried one hundred

and fifty arrows tipped with iron. Others had firearms, but all bore bolas on their saddles, and carried lazos

and long lances, [49] which, like the Pampa Indians, they used in mounting their horses, placing one hand

upon the mane, and vaulting into the saddles with the other leaning on the lance. The infantry were armed

with lances and a few guns; they also carried bolas, but they trusted most to slings, for which they carried

bags of hide, with a provision of smooth round stones, and used them dexterously. On several occasions their

rude militia gave proofs of stubborn valour, and, as they fought under the Jesuits' eyes, no doubt acquitted

themselves as men would who looked upon their priests almost in the light of gods. But agriculture and

cattlebreeding were not all the resources of the missions; for the Jesuits engaged in commerce largely, both

with the outer world and by the intricate and curious barter system which they had set on foot for the mutual

convenience of the different mission towns. In many of the inventories printed by Brabo, one comes across

the entry 'Deudas', showing a sort of account current between the towns for various articles. Thus, they

exchanged cattle for cotton, sugar for rice, wheat for pigiron or tools from Europe; as no account of interest

ever appears in any inventory as between town and town, it seems the Jesuits anticipated Socialismat least,

so far as that they bought and sold for use, and not for gain. Although between the towns of their own

territory all was arranged for mutual convenience, yet in their dealings with the outside world the Jesuits

adhered to what are known as 'business principles'. These principles, if I mistake not, have been deified by

politicians with their 'Buy in the cheapest, sell in the dearest' tag, and therefore even the sternest Protestant or

Jansenist (if such there still exist) can have no stone to throw at the Company of Jesus for its participation in

Cotton and linen cloth, tobacco, hides, woods of the various hardwood forests of the country, and, above all,

yerbamat�, were their chief articles of export to the outside world. Their nearest market was in Buenos

Ayres, and to that port they sent their yerba in boats made at their own yards, of which they had several, but

notably at Yapey� upon the Uruguay. The money that was made was sent to the Superior of the missions,

who had the disposition of the way in which it was dispensed, either for use at home or to be sent to Europe

for necessary goods. As well as yerbamat�, they sent great quantities of hides. The inventories of the towns

taken at the expulsion state that the number of green hides [50] exported annually was fifty thousand,

together with six thousand cured; in addition they sold from three to four arrobas [51] of horsehair, and

wood to the value of twentyfive to thirty thousand dollars every year. The total export of their yerba ranged

between eighty and one hundred thousand arrobas, which at the lowest price could not have been sold at a

profit under seven dollars an arroba, [52] so that the income [53] of the thirty towns must have been relatively

large. [54] Two or three hundred barrels of honey [55] and some three or four thousand arrobas of tobacco

made up the sum total of their exports, though, had they needed money, it might have been increased in such

Thus it will be seen that the missions were organized both agriculturally and commercially so as to be almost

selfsupporting, and that of the mere necessaries of life they had sufficient for exportation, no small

achievement when we consider how averse from labour were the Indians with whom they had to deal. But

that nothing should be wanting that a civilized community could possibly desire, they had their prisons, with

good store of chains, fetters, whips, and all the other instruments with which the moral code is generally

enforced. The most usual punishment was whipping; [56] and the crimes most frequent were drunkenness,

neglect of work, and bigamy, which latter lapse from virtue the Jesuits chastised severely, not thinking, being

celibates themselves, that not unlikely it was apt to turn into its own punishment without the aid of stripes.

[1] At the date of the expulsion the number of the cattle was 719,761; oxen, 44,183; horses, 27,204; sheep,

138,827 ('Inventarios de los bienes hallados � la expulsion de los Jesuitas', Francisco Javier Brabo, Madrid,

[3] Urunday (Astrenium fraxinifolium: Terebinthace�), curapay (Piptadenia communis: Leguminace�),

lapacho (Tecoma curialis and varia: Begoniace�), taruma (Vitex Tarum�: Verbenace�), tatane (Acacia

maleolens: Leguminaceae), and cupai (Copaifera Langsdorfii). These and many other woods, such as the Palo

Santo (Guaiacum officinalis), butacae, and the Cedrela Braziliensis, known to the Jesuits as 'cedar', and much

[4] 'Libro compuesto por el Hermano Pedro de Montenegro de la C. de J., Ano 1711', MS. folio, with

penandink sketches, formerly belonged to the Dukes of Osuna, and was in their library. Padre Sigismundi

also wrote a herbal in Guaran�, and a Portuguese Jesuit, Vasconellos, has left a curious book upon the flora of

[5] Domingo Parodi, in his 'Notas sobre algunas plantas usuales del Paraguay' (Buenos Ayres, 1886), has

[7] Prosopis dulcis. The famous 'balm of the missions', known by the vulgar name of curalo todo (allheal),

was made from the gum of the tree called aguacciba, one of the Terebinthace�. It was sold by the Jesuits in

Europe. It was so highly esteemed that the inhabitants of the villages near to which the tree was found were

specially enjoined to send a certain quantity of the balsam every year to the King's pharmacy in Madrid.

[8] It was from those mountains that the Jesuits procured the seed of the Ilex Paraguayensis to plant in their

reductions. The leaves beaten into a finish powder furnished the 'Paraguayan tea', called yerbamat� by the

Spaniards and 'caa' by the Indians, from which the Jesuits derived a handsome revenue. After the expulsion of

the Order all the yerba in Paraguay was procured, till a few years ago, from forests in the north of Paraguay,

[9] It was by the Bull of Paul III.given at the demand of two monks, Fray Domingo de Betanzos and Fray

Domingo de Minayathat the Indians were first considered as reasoning men (gente de razon), and not as

unreasonable beings (gente sin razon), as Juan Ortiz, Bishop of Santa Marta, wished.

[10] Iba�ez ('Histoire du Paraguay sous les J�suites M.D.CCIXXX.'), a great opponent of the Jesuits, says

that European offenders and recalcitrant Indians in the missions were sent as a last resource to the Spanish

settlements. This is not astonishing when we remember the curious letter of Don Pedro Faxardo, Bishop of

Buenos Ayres (preserved by Charlevoix), written in 1721 to the King of Spain, in which he says he thinks

'that not a mortal crime is committed in the missions in a year.' He adds that, 'if the Jesuits were so rich, why

[11] It is to be remembered that, of the thirty Jesuit missions, only eight were in Paraguay; the rest were in

what today is Brazil and the Argentine provinces of Entre Rios, Corrientes, and Misiones.

[12] Sometimes, when they had been assembled, they all deserted suddenly, as did the Tobatines, who in

1740 suddenly left the reduction of Santa F�, and for eleven years were lost in the forests, till Father Yegros

found them, and, as they would not return, established himself amongst them (Cr�tineau Joly, 'Histoire de la

[13] P. Cardiel, 'Declaracion de la Verdad', p. 282: 'Todos los pueblos estan bien formados con calles �

cordel. Las casas de los Indios son en algunos pueblos de piedras cuadradas pero sin cal . . . otras de palos y

barro todas cubiertas de teja, y todas tienen soportales � corredores, unas con pilares de piedras, otras de

[14] Don Francisco Graell, an officer of dragoons in service during the War of the Seven Towns in 1750,

gives the following description of the church of the mission of San Miguel: 'La iglesia es muy capaz, toda de

piedra de silleria con tres naves y media naranja. Muy bien pintada y dorada con un portico magnifico y de

bellisima arquitectura, bovedas y media naranja son de madera, el altar mayor de talla, sin dorar y le falta el

[15] 'Galerias con columnas, barandillas y escaleras de piedra entallada' (Don Francisco Graell). See also P.

Cardiel ('Declaracion de la Verdad', p. 247), 'En todos los pueblos hay reloj de sol y de ruedas,' etc. The work

of Padre Cardiel was written in 1750 in the missions of Paraguay, but remained unpublished till 1800, when it

appeared in Buenos Ayres from the press of Juan A. Alsina, Calle de Mexico 1422. It is, perhaps, after the

'Conquista Espiritual' of Father Ruiz Montoya, the most powerful contemporary justification of the policy of

the Jesuits in Paraguay. It is powerfully but simply written, and contains withal that saving grace of humour

[16] The mission of San Miguel had 1,353 families in it, or say 6,635 souls. San Francisco de Borja contained

650 families, or 2,793 souls (Report by Manuel Querini to the King, dated Cordoba de Tucuman, y Agosto

[17] In their extensive missions in the provinces of Chiquitos and Moxos they pursued the same system. As

they were much more isolated in those provinces than in Paraguay, and consequently much less interfered

with, it was there that their peculiar system most flourished. After the expulsion of the Jesuits from America

in 1767, the Spaniards in Alta Peru, and subsequently the Bolivians, had the sense to follow the Jesuit plan in

its entirety; whereas Bucareli, the Viceroy of Buenos Ayres, entirely changed the Jesuits' rule in Paraguay.

The consequence was that in Bolivia the Indians, instead of dispersing as they did in Paraguay, remained in

the missions, and D'Orbigny ('Fragment d'un Voyage au Centre de l'Am�rique M�ridianale') saw at the

missions of Santiago and El Santo Corazon, in the province of Chiquitos, the remains of the Jesuits' polity.

There were ten missions in Chiquitos, and fifteen in Moxos. At the present time the Franciscans have some

[19] Ferrer del Rio, in his 'Coleccion de los articulos de la Esperanza sobre Carlos III.' (Madrid, 1859), says:

'Fuera de las misiones de los Jesuitas particularmente en el Paraguay se consideraban los Indios entre los

Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa, in their celebrated 'Secret Report' ('Noticias Secretas de America'): 'La

compa�ia (de Jesus) atiende a sus fines particularmente con los misioneros que llevan de Espa�a; pero con

todo eso no se olvida de la conversion de los Indios, ni tiene abandonado este asunto pues aunque van poco

[20] Many travellers, as Azara, Demersay, Du Graty, and D'Orbigny, have remarked how fond of music was

the Guaran� race, and how soon they learned the use of European instruments. D'Orbigny ('Fragment d'un

Voyage au Centre de l'Am�rique M�ridianale'), in his interesting account of the mission of El Santo Corazon,

in the district of Chiquitos, says: 'Je fus tr�s �tonn� d'entendre ex�cuter apr�s les danses indig�nes des

morceaux de Rossini et . . . de Weber . . . la grande messe chant�e en musique �tait ex�cut�e d'une mani�re

Vargas Machuca, in his most curious and rare 'Milicia y Descripcion de las Indias', says, under the heading of

'Musica del Indio': 'Usan sus musicas antiguas en sus regocijos, y son muy tristes en la tonada.' Today the

Indians of Paraguay have songs known as tristes. The brigadier Don Diego de Alvear, in his 'Relacion de

Misiones' (Coleccion de Angelis), says that the first to teach the Guaran�s European music was a Flemish

Jesuit, P. Juan Basco, who had been 'maestro de capilla' to the Archduke Albert.

[21] See also P. Cardiel, 'Declaracion de la Verdad', p. 274: '. . . y esta acabada, se toca � Misa � que entran

todos cantando el Bendito, y alabado en su lengua, � en Castellano, que en las dos lenguas lo saben.'

[22] Dean Funes, in his 'Ensayo de la Historia del Paraguay', etc., says that in the estancia of Santa Tecla, in

the missions of Paraguay, during the time of the Jesuits, there were 50,000 head of cattle.

[23] 'Inventarios de los bienes hallados � la expulsion de los Jesuitas', Introduction, xxvii, Francisco Javier

[24] The rare and muchsoughtafter 'Manuale ad usum Patrum Societatis Jesu qui in Reductionibus

Paraquari� versantur, ex Rituale Romano ad Toletano decerptum', was printed at the mission of Loreto. It

contains prayers in Guaran� as well as in Latin. Here also was printed a curious book of Guaran� sermons by

Nicolas Yapuguay, many Guaran� vocabularies, and the 'Arte de la Lengua Guaran�' of Ruiz Montoya.

[25] P. Cardiel, 'Declaracion de la Verdad', p. 295: 'De estos granos comunales se da para sembrar', etc.

[27] The poorer classes in Paraguay all used to wear the tipoi. They covered themselves when it was cold

[28] The Jesuits themselves were dressed in homespun clothes, for Matias Anglesquoted in the

introduction to the 'Declaracion de la Verdad' of Father Cardiel, published at Buenos Ayres in 1900 (the

introduction by P. Pablo Hernandez)says: 'El vestuario de los Padres es de lienzo de algodon te�ido de

negro, hilado y fabricado por las mismas Indias de los pueblos; y si tal qual Padre tiene un capote � manteo

[29] In the 'Relacion de Misiones' of the Brigadier Don Diego de Alvear, written between 1788 and 1801, and

preserved in the 'Coleccion de Angelis', occurs the following curious description of the feastday of a patron

saint of a Jesuit reduction: 'They make a long alley of interwoven canes, which ends in a triumphal arch,

which they adorn with branches of palms and other trees with considerable grace and taste (con bastante

gracia y simetria). Under the arch they hang their images of saints, their clothes, their firstfruitsas corn

and sugarcane, and calabashes full of maizebeer (chicha)their meat and bread, together with animals

both alive and dead, such as they can procure (como los pueden haber con su diligencia). Then, forming in a

[30] Many and curious are the names by which the officebearers went. Thus, in the Mission of el Santo

Corazon, in the Chiquitos, I find the following: Corregidor, the Mayor; Teniente, Lieutenant; Alferez,

SubLieutenant; Alcalde Primero, Head Alcalde; Alcalde Segundo, Second Alcalde; Commandante, Captain

(of the Militia); Justicia Mayor, Chief Justice; Sargento Mayor, SergeantMajor. Then came fiscales, fiscals;

sacristan mayor, headbeadle; capitan de estancia, chief of the cattle farm; capitan de pinturas, carpinteria,

herreros, etc.captain of painters, carpenters, smiths, etc. All the offices were competed for ardently, and

those of Corregidor and Alcalde in especial were prized so highly that Indians who were degraded from them

[31] In each reduction there were two priests. In all Paraguay, at the expulsion of the Order in 1767, there

were only seventyeight Jesuits (Dean Funes, 'Ensayo de la Historia del Paraguay', etc., cap. i., vol. ii.).

[32] In the mission of Los Apostoles there were 599 of these 'horses of the saint', according to an inventory

[33] Furnished to Bucareli, Viceroy of Buenos Ayres at the expulsion, and first printed by Brabo ('Inventarios

[34] The Jesuits exercised the Indians a great deal in dancing, taking advantage of their love of dancing in

their savage state. D'Orbigny and Demersay ('Fragment d'un Voyage au Centre de l'Am�rique M�ridianale',

and 'Histoire Physique, etc., du Paraguay') found between the years 1830 and 1855 that the Indians of the

Moxos and Chiquitos still danced as they had done in the time of the Jesuits. I have seen them in the then

(1873) almost deserted mission of Jesus, buried in the great woods on the shore of the Paran�, dance a

[35] Cardiel, in his 'Declaracion de la Verdad', p. 239, says: 'Todos los pueblos ponen su castillo en la plaza y

en el medio de el colocan el retratro del Rey, y el Indio Alferez Real . . . va al castillo con el Estandarte Real

y alli hace su homenage con otros rendimientos anteel Retratro Real,' saying in Guaran�, 'Toicohengat� �ande

Mbaru bicha guaz�! Toicohengat� �ande Rey marangat�! Toicohengat� �ande Rey Fernando Sesto!' ('Long

live our King, the great chief! Long live our good King! Long live our King Ferdinand VI.').

[37] It may be roughly translated, 'a good stone wall between a male and female saint.'

[38] These clothes were the property of the community, and not of the individual Indians.

[40] A recent writer in the little journal published on yellow packingpaper in the Socialist colony of Cosme,

in Paraguay (Cosme Monthly, November, 1898), has a curious passage corroborating what I have so often

observed myself. Under the heading of 'A Paraguayan Market', he says: 'The Guaran� clings stubbornly to the

Guaran� customs. This is irritating to the European, but who shall say that the Guaran� is not right? . . .

European settlement cannot but be fatal to the Guaran�, however profitable it may be to landowning and

mercantile classes. . . . The Paraguayan market is a woman's club . . . they will come thirty or forty miles with

a clothful of the white curdcheese of the country, contentedly journeying on foot along the narrow paths.

They will cut a cabbage into sixteenths and eat their cheese themselves rather than sell it under market price.'

Long may they do so, for so long will they be free, and perhaps poor; but, then, in countries such as Paraguay

[41] As the Gaucho proverb says, 'Las armas son necesarias pero "naide" sabe cuando.'

[44] I remember seeing on the tombstone of a Spanish sailor his hope of salvation through the intercession of

the Lord High Admiral Christ. After the Spanish custom, officers were often generals both by sea and land,

[45] Dean Funes ('Ensayo de la Historia de Paraguay', etc.) says: 'These Indians went under the command of

Don Antonio de Vera Moxica; their sergeants were Guaran�s and their captains Spaniards. Their cacique was

Ignacio Amandaa, who commanded in chief under Vera Moxica.' They fought bravely, and returned again

and again to the assault of the town after several repulses, manifesting the same dogged courage and

indifference to death which their descendants showed in the war against Brazil in 186670. In that war bodies

of Paraguayans frequently attacked strong positions defended by artillery, and allowed themselves to be shot

down to the last man rather than retire. At other times, concealed behind masses of floating herbage, from

their canoes they sprang on board Brazilian ironclads, and were all killed in the vain endeavour to capture the

vessels. I knew a little pettifogging lawyer, one Izquierdo, who, with ten companions, attempted in a canoe to

take the Brazilian flagship (an ironclad); left alone on her deck, after the death of his companions, he sprang

into the water under a shower of bullets, and, badly wounded, swam over to the Chaco, the desert side of the

river. There for three days he remained, subsisting on wild oranges, and then swam across again on a raft of

sticks, in spite of the alligators and many fierce fish which abound in Paraguay. He got well, and, though

lame, was, when I knew him, as arrant a little scrivening knave as you could hope to meet in either

hemisphere. On many other occasions the mission Indians performed notable services for the Spanish

Government. In 1681, when the French attacked Buenos Ayres, a detachment of two thousand Indians was

sent to its assistance. Philip V. himself wrote to the Provincial of Paraguay on this occasion asking him to

send troops to the defence of the city. In 1785 four thousand Guaran�s, commanded by Don Baltazar Garcia,

were at the second siege of the Colonia del Sacramento. Funes says of them: 'A juicio de un testigo ocular, no

[46] 'Perro Luterano'. It is astonishing how in Spain the comparatively innocuous Luther has fallen heir to the

heritage of hatred that should more properly have belonged to the inhuman and treacherous Calvin.

[47] Philip V. in 1745, after an examination which lasted six years, approved of all the actions of the Jesuits

in Paraguay (Cr�tineau Joly, 'Histoire de la Compagnie de J�sus', vol. v., p. 103). So that a curious letter of a

Jeronimite friar (one Padre Cevallos), written in 1774, is well within due limits when it says that all the

Jesuits did in Paraguay was 'todo probado por reales cedulas � procedia de ordenes expresas.'

[48] One is obliged to allow, in common fairness, that Calvin carried out in his own practice what he

advocatedas witness his conduct with Servetus, whom he first calumniated, then entrapped, and lastly

[49] Don Francisco Corr sent the following list of arms to the Viceroy Zabala, of Buenos Ayres (Funes,

'Ensayo', etc.): 'Armas buenas, 850; lanzas de hierro, 3,850; pedreras (culverins), 10. Las flechas no se

cuentan.' He says: 'Todos los Indios quando han de salir a compa�a llevan 150 flechas de hierro, menos los

que llevan armos de fuego. Asi mismo cargan "bolas" que son dos piedras en una cuerda. Los de a pie que no

llevan escopetas tienen lanza, flecha, y honda con su provision de piedras en un bolson como de granaderos.

[50] Iba�ez ('Histoire du Paraguay sous les J�suites') states the hides sold at about three dollars apiece.

[53] Iba�ez states that only eightyfour dollars a year were set apart for the maintenance of each priest.

[54] Dean Funes ('Ensayo de le Historia Civil del Paraguay', etc.) puts it at a million reales, which almost

equals �20,800. Iba�ez ('La Republica Jesuitica'), with the noble disregard of consequences so noticeable in

most polemical writers, boldly alters this to a million dollars, his object being to prove that the Jesuits exacted

[55] The honey of the missions was celebrated, and the wax made by the small bee called 'Opemus',

according to Charlevoix (livre v., p. 285), '�tait d'une blancheur qui n'avait rien de pareil, et ces neophytes ont

consacr� tout qu'ils en peuvent avoir � bruler devant les images de la Ste. Vierge.'

[56] In the inventory of the mission of San Jos� I find: 'Item, doce pares de grillos'; but I am bound to say that

in this instance they were for the use of 'los Guaicurus infieles prisioneros que estan en dicha mision.'

Causes of the Jesuits' unpopularity Description of the lives and habits of the priests Testimony in

favour of the missions Their opposition to slavery Their system of administration

MUCH HAS BEEN written of the interior government of the missions by the Jesuits, but chiefly by strong

partisans, for and against, on either side, whose only object was to make out a case to fit the prejudices of

those for whom they wrote. Upon the Jesuit side the Abb� Muratori [1] describes a paradise. A very Carlo

Dolce amongst writers, with him all in the missions is so cloying sweet that one's soul sickens, and one longs

in his 'Happy Christianity' to find a drop of gall. But for five hundred pages nothing is amiss; the men of

Belial persecute the Jesuit saints, who always (after the fashion of their Order and mankind) turn both cheeks

to the smiter, and, if their purse is taken, hasten to give up their cloaks. The Indians are all love and gratitude.

No need in the Abb�'s pages for the twelve pair of fetters, which Brabo most unkindly has set down amongst

his inventories. Never a single lapsus from the moral rule the Jesuits imposedno drunkenness, and bigamy

so seldom met with that it would seem that Joseph Andrews had been a swaggerer judged by the standard of

these moral Guaran�s. Then comes Iba�ez, [2] the exJesuit, on the other side. In a twinkling of an eye the

scene is changed. For, quite in Hogarth's vein, he paints the missions as a perpetual march to Finchley, and

tells us that the Indians were savages, and quite unchanged in all their primitive propensities under the Jesuit

rule. And for the Jesuits themselves he has a few hometruths administered with vinegar, after the fashion of

the renegade the whole world over, who sees nothing good in the society that has turned him out. He roundly

says the Jesuits were loafers, accuses them of keeping the Indians ignorant for their own purposes, and paints

them quite as black as the Abb� Muratori painted them rose colour, and with as little art. So that, as usually

happens in the writings of all polemists, no matter upon which side they may write, but little information, and

In general, curious as it may appear, the bitterest opponents of the Jesuits were Catholics, and Protestants

have often written as apologists. Buffon, Raynal, and Montesquieu, with Voltaire, Robertson, and Southey,

have written favourably of the internal government of the missions and the effect which it produced. No other

names of equal authority can be quoted on the other side; but yet the fact remains that the Jesuits in Paraguay

were exposed to constant calumny from the first day they went there till the last member of the Order left the

It is my object first to try to show what the conditions of their government really were, and then to try and

clear up what was the cause of unpopularity, and why so many and such persistent calumnies were laid to

their account. Stretching right up and down the banks of both the Paran� and Uruguay, the missions extended

from Nuestra Senora de F� [3] (or Santa Maria), in Paraguay, to San Miguel, in what is now the Brazilian

province of Rio Grande do Sul; and from the mission of Corpus, on the east bank of the Paran�, to Yapey�,

upon the Uruguay. The official capital was placed at Candelaria, on the east bank of the Paran�. In that town

the Superior of the missions had his official residence, and from thence he ruled the whole territory, having

not only the ecclesiastical but the temporal power, the latter, from the position in which he was placed, so

many hundred miles from any Spanish Governor, having by degrees gradually come into his hands. The little

town of La Candelaria was, when I knew it, in a most neglected state. The buildings of the Jesuits, with the

exception of the church, were all in ruins. The streets were sandy and deserted, the footwalk separated from

them by a line of hardwood posts, which, as tradition said, were left there by the Jesuits; but the hard woods

A balsathat is, a flying bridge worked by a cableplied fitfully across the Paran� to Ytapua, also a little

exJesuit town upon the other side. Each shop had a sign outside, as was the case in England a hundred years

ago. Indians supplied the place with vegetables, floating down in canoes piled up with fruit, with flowers,

with sweet potatoes, and returning home empty, or for their cargo three or four tin pails, a lookingglass, or

other of the marvels which Europe sends as a sample of her manufactures to little frontier towns. All was as

quiet, or perhaps much quieter than in the time when the Superior of the Jesuits was in residence, and if it had

been necessary, during the hot hours of noon, Godivas by the dozen might have ridden down the streets, had

they been able to find horses quiet enough to ride, certain that no one in the town would lose his

In every mission two chosen Jesuits lived. The elder, selected for his experience of the country and

knowledge of the tongue from amongst those who had been rectors of colleges or provincials of the Order,

was vested with the civil power, and was responsible direct to the Superior. The second, generally styled

companion (el Compa�ero), acted as his lieutenant, and had full charge of all things spiritual; so that they

In difficulties the Superior transmitted orders, like a general in the field, by mounted messengers, who

frequently rode over a hundred miles a day, relays of horses always being kept ready for emergencies every

From La Candelaria roads branched off to every portion of the territory, most of them fit for carts, and all

superior to those tracks which were the only thoroughfares but twenty years ago. Roads ran to Corrientes, to

Asuncion, others from Yapey� to the Salto Grande, on the Paran�. Upon the Upper Uruguay were about

eighty posts, all guarded, and with horses ready to equip the messengers. But there were also roads in the

district of the Upper Paran�, which I myself remember as a wilderness, uncrossed, uncrossable, where tigers

roamed about and Indians shot at the rare traveller with poisoned arrows out of a blowpipe, whilst they

remained unseen in the recesses of the woods. In the districts of the Upper Uruguay and Paran�, besides the

roads and relays of posthorses, they had a fleet both of canoes and boats in which they carried yerba [4] and

the other products of the land. Thus, with their fleet of boats and of canoes, their highroads branching out on

every side, and their relays of posthorses at intervals, most probably no State of America at the time had

such interior means of communication with the seat of government. The Incas and the Aztecs certainly had

posts who carried messages and brought up fish from the coast with great rapidity; but all the Spanish

colonies contemporaneous with the Jesuits' settlements in Paraguay had fallen into a state of lethargy and of

interior decay. The roads the Incas used in Peru were falling fast into disuse, and it took several weeks to

The system of interior government in the missions was in appearance democraticthat is to say, there were

officials, as mayors [5] and councillors; but most of them were named by the Jesuits, and all of them, even

although elected, owed their election entirely to their priests. This sort of thoughtsuggested representation

was the most fitting for the Indians at the time, [6] and those who look into the workings of a County Council

of today cannot but think at times that the majority of the councillors would have been better chosen had the

electorate had the benefit of some controlling hand, though from what quarter it is difficult to see. The

problem which most writers on the Jesuits have quite misunderstood, is how two Jesuits were able to keep a

mission of several thousand Indians in order, and to rule supreme without armed forces, or any means of

making their power felt or of enforcing obedience to their decrees. Undoubtedly, the dangerous position in

which the Indians stood, exposed on one side to the Paulistas, and on the other to the Spanish settlers, both of

whom wished to take them as their slaves, placed power in the Jesuits' hands: for the Indians clearly

perceived that the Jesuits alone stood between them and instant slavery. Most controversialists who have

opposed the Jesuits assert that the Indians of the missions were, in reality, half slaves. Nothing is further from

the truth, if one consults the contemporary records, and remembers the small number of the Jesuits. The work

the Indians did was inconsiderable, and under such conditions as to deprive it of much of the toilsomeness

which is incident to any kind of work. The very essence of a slave's estate is being obliged to work without

remuneration for another man. Nothing was farther from the Indians than such a state of things. Their work

was done for the community, and though the Jesuits, without doubt, had the full disposition of all the money

earned in commerce, [7] and of the distribution of the goods, neither the money nor the goods were used for

selfaggrandisement, but were laid out for the benefit of the community at large. The total population of the

thirty towns is variously estimated from one hundred and forty to one hundred and eighty thousand, [8] and,

curiously enough, it remained almost at the same figure during the whole period of the Jesuit rule. This fact

has been adduced against the Jesuits, and it has been said that they could not have been good rulers, or the

population must have increased; but those who say so forget that the Indians of Paraguay were never in great

numbers, and that most writers on the wild tribes, as Dobrizhoffer [9] and Azara, remark their tendency never

All this relatively large population of Indians was ruled, as has been seen, by a quite inconsiderable number

of priests, who, not disposing of any European force, and being almost always on bad terms with the Spanish

settlers in Paraguay on account of the firm stand they made against the enslaving of the Indians, had no

means of coercion at their command. Hence the Indians must have been contented with their rule, for if they

had not been so the Jesuits possessed no power to stop them from returning to their savage life. Azara, [10]

although in the main an opponent of the Jesuits, in the same way that a 'good Liberal' of today would oppose

anything of a Socialistic tendency, yet has this most significant passage in their favour. After enumerating the

amount of taxes paid by the missions to the Crown, he says 'en faisant le bilan tout se trouvait �gal, et s'il y

avait quelque exc�dant, il �tait en faveur des J�suites ou des peoplades.' [11] Seldom enough does such a

result take place when the balance is struck today in any country between the rulers and their 'taxables'.

Following their system of perfect isolation from the world to its logical sequence, the Jesuits surrounded all

the territories of their different towns with walls and ditches, and at the gates planted a guard to prevent

egress or ingress between the missions and the outer world. [12] Much capital has been made out of this, as it

is attempted to be shown that the Indians were thereby treated as prisoners in their own territories. Nothing,

however, has been said of the fact that, if the ditches, palisades, and guardhouses kept in the Indians, they

also had the effect of keeping the Spaniards out. When men who looked upon the Indians as without reason,

and captured them for slaves when it was possible, began to talk of liberty, it looks as if the 'sacred name of

liberty' was used but as a stalkinghorseas greasy Testaments are used to swear upon in policecourts,

when the witness, with his tongue in his cheek, raises his eyes to heaven, and then with fervency imprints a

It will be seen that the communism of the missions was of a limited character, and, though the land was

cultivated by the labour of the community, that the products were administered by the Jesuits alone. Though

it has been stated by many polemical writers, such as Iba�ez and Azara, and more recently by Washburne,

who was American Minister in Paraguay during the war with Brazil and the Argentine Republic (186670),

that the Jesuits had amassed great wealth in Paraguay, no proof has ever been advanced for such a charge.

Certainly Cardenas made the same statement, but it was never in his power to bring any confirmation of what

he said. This power alone was in the hands of Bucareli (1767), the Viceroy of Buenos Ayres, under whose

auspices the expulsion of the Jesuits was carried out. By several extracts from Brabo's inventories, and by the

statement of the receivers sent by Bucareli, I hope to show that there was no great wealth at any time in the

mission territory, and that the income was expended in the territory itself. It may be that the expenditure on

churches was excessive, and also that the money laid out on religious ceremonies was not productive; but the

Jesuits, strange as it may appear, did not conduct the missions after the fashion of a business concern, but

rather as the rulers of some Utopiathose foolish beings who think happiness is preferable to wealth.

Nothing can give a better idea of the way of life of a Jesuit priest and of his daily labours than the curious

letter of Nicolas �eenguir�, originally written in Guaran�, but of which a translation is extant in the National

'The manner of living of the father is to shut all the doors, and remain alone with his servant and his cook

(who are Indians of a considerable age), and these only wait on him; but by day only, and at twelve o'clock,

they go out, and an old man has care of the porter's lodge, and it is he who shuts the gate when the father is

asleep, or when he goes out to see his cultivated ground, and even then they go alone, except it be with an old

Indian, who guides them and attends to the (father's) horse; and after that he goes to Mass, and in the evening

to the Rosary of the Blessed Virgin, calling us together by the sound of the bell, and before that he calls the

boys and girls with a small bell, and after that the good father begins to teach them doctrine and how to cross

themselves. In the same way, on every feast day, he preaches to us the Word of God, in the same way the

Holy Sacrament of Penitence and of the Communion; in these things does the good Father employ himself,

and every night the porter's lodge is closed, and the key taken to the Father's room, which is only opened in

'The Fathers every morning say Mass for us, and after Mass they go to their rooms, and then they take some

hot water and yerba (mat�), and nothing more; after that he comes to the door of his apartment, and then all

those who heard Mass come to kiss his hand, and after that he goes out to see if the Indians are diligent at

their tasks, and afterwards they go to their room to read the divine service for the day in his book, and to pray

that God may prosper him in all his affairs. At eleven o'clock they go to eat a little, not to eat much, for he

only has five dishes, and only drinks wine once, not filling a little glass; and spirits they never drink, and

there is no wine in our town, except that which is brought from Candelaria, according to that which the

Superior sends, and they bring it from somewhere near Buenos Aires. . . . After he has finished eating, to rest

a little he goes into the church; afterwardsyes, he retires to rest a little, and whilst he is resting those who

work in the father's house go out, and those who do any kind of indoor work, and also the sacristan and the

cook: all these go out, and as long as the bell does not ring the doors are shut, and only an old man guards the

gate, and when they ring the bell again he opens the doors so that those who work indoors may go inside, and

the father takes his breviary and goes nowhere. In the evening they ring the bell so that the children may

Perhaps the foregoing simple description, written by an Indian in Guaran�, and translated by someone who

has preserved in Spanish all the curious inversions of the Guaran�, presents as good a picture of the daily life

of a mission priest in Paraguay as any that has ever been given to the public by writers much more ambitious

than myself or �eenguir�. Nicolas �eenguir�, the writer of the letter, afterwards figured in the war against

the Portuguese, and several of his letters are preserved in the archives of Simancas, though none so

Dobrizhoffer, in his history of the Abipones, says of him that he was a simple Indian, whom often he had

seen put in the stocks for petty faults; at any rate, he seems to have been one of those Indians whom the

Jesuits had at least favourably impressed by the system they employed. After the manner in which he wrote,

hundreds of Indians must have thought, or else the missions, placed as they were, surrounded on all sides by

enemies, could not have endured a single day. What was it, then, which raised the Jesuits up so many and so

powerful enemies in Paraguay, when in the districts of the Moxos [14] and the Chiquitos where their power

was to the full as great, amongst the Indians, they never had a quarrel with the Spaniards till the day they

were expelled? Many and various causes contributed to all they underwent, but most undoubtedly two

Since the time of Cardenas, the report that the Jesuits had rich mines, which they worked on the sly, had been

persistently on the increase. Although disproved a thousand times, it still remained; even today, in spite of

'science' and its wonderful discoveries, there are many in Paraguay who cherish dreams of discovering Jesuit

mines. Humanity loves to deceive itself, although there are plenty ready to deceive it; and if men can both

forge for themselves fables and at the same time damage their neighbours in so doing, their pleasure is

intense. I take it that many really believed the stories of the mines, being unable to credit that anyone would

live far from the world, surrounded but by Indians, for any other reason than to be rich. But let a country have

rich minerals, even if they exist but in imagination, and it becomes a crime against humanity to shut it up. So

that it would appear one of the reasons which induced hatred against the Jesuits was the idea that they had

enormous mineral wealth, which either they did not work or else worked in secret for the benefit of their

The other reason was the question of slavery. Once get it well into your head that you and yours are

'reasoning men' [15] (gente de razon), and that all coloured people are irrational, and slavery follows as a

natural sequence; for 'reasoning men' have wit to make a gun, and on the gun all reason takes it stand. From

the first instant of their arrival in America, the Jesuits had maintained a firm front against the enslavement of

the Indians. They may have had their faults in Europe, and in the larger centres of population in America; but

where they came in contact with the Indians, theirs was the sole voice raised upon their side.

In 1593 Padre Juan Romero, sent from Peru as Superior to Paraguay, on his arrival gave up an estate (with

Indians in encomienda) which his predecessors had enjoyed, alleging that he did not wish to give the example

of making profit out of the unpaid labour of the Indians, [16] and that without their work the estate was

On many occasions, notably in the time of Cardenas, the Jesuits openly withstood all slavery, and amongst

the concessions that Ruiz Montoya obtained from the King of Spain was one declaring all the Indians to be

free. [17] If more examples of the hatred that their attitude on slavery called forth were wanting, it is to be

remembered that in 1640, when Montoya and Ta�o returned from Spain, and affixed the edict of the Pope on

the church doors in Piritinanga, threatening with excommunication all slaveholders, a cry of robbery went

forth, and the Jesuits were banished from the town. But in this matter of slavery there is no saying what view

any one given man will take upon it when he finds himself in such a country as America was during the time

the Jesuits were in Paraguay. Don Felix de Azara, a liberal and a philosopher, a man of science, and who has

left us perhaps the best description both of Paraguay and of the River Plate, written in the eighteenth century,

yet was a partisan of slavery. [18] In a most curious passage for a Liberal philosopher, he says: [19] 'The

Court ordered Don Francisco, Judge of the High Court of Charcas, to go to Peru in the character of visitor.

The first measure which he took, in 1612, was to order that in future no one should go to the Indians' houses

with the pretext of reducing them (i.e., to civilization), and that no encomiendas (fiefs) should be given of the

kind we have explainedthat is to say, with personal service (of the Indians). I cannot understand on what

he could have founded a measure so politically absurd; but as that judge favoured the ideas of the Jesuits, it is

What stronger testimony (coming from such a man) could possibly be found, both that the Jesuits were

opposed to the enslaving of the Indians and that their opposition rendered them unpopular? In the same way,

no doubt, some modern, unwise philosopher, writing in Brussels, would uphold the slavery and massacres in

Belgian Africa as evidences of a wise policy, because the end condones the means, and in the future, when

progress has had time to fructify, there will be workhouses dotted all up and down the Congo, and every

'native' will be forced to supply himself, at but a trifle above the cost in Belgium, with a sufficiency of

So it appears that the aforesaid were the two chief reasons which made the Jesuits unpopular with the Spanish

settlers in Paraguay. But in addition it should be remembered that there were in that country members of

almost all the other religious Orders, and that, as nearly every one of them had quarrelled with the Jesuits in

Europe, or at the best were jealous of their power, the enmities begun in Europe were transmitted to the New

World, and constantly fanned by reports of the quarrels which went on between the various Orders all

But if it were the case that the Jesuits excited feelings of hatred in their neighbours, yet they certainly had the

gift of attaching to themselves the Indians' hearts. No institution, condemned with contumely and thrust out

of a country where it had worked for long, its supposed crimes kept secret, and its members all condemned

unheard, could have preserved its popularity amongst the descendants of the men with whom it worked, after

I care not in the least for theories, for this or that dogma of politicians or theologists, but take my stand on

what I heard myself during my visits to the now ruined Jesuit missions in Paraguay. Horsemen say horses can

go in any shape, and, wonderful as it may seem, men can be happy under conditions which no writer on

political economy would recognise as fit for human beings. Not once but many times have aged Indians told

me of what their fathers used to say about the Jesuits, and they themselves always spoke of them with respect

and kindness, and endeavoured to keep up to the best of their ability all the traditions of the Church

That the interior system of their government was perfect, or such as would be suitable for men called

'civilized' today, is not the case. That it was not only suitable, but perhaps the best that under all the

circumstances could have been devised for Indian tribes two hundred years ago, and then but just emerged

from seminomadism, is, I think, clear, when one remembers in what a state of misery and despair the

Indians of the encomiendas [20] and the mitas passed their lives. That semicommunism, with a controlling

hand in administrative affairs, produced many superior men, or such as rise to the top in modern times, I do

not think; but, then, who are the men, and by the exercise of what kind of virtues do they rise in the societies

of modern times? The Jesuits' aim was to make the great bulk of the Indians under their control contented,

and that they gained their end the complaints against them by the surrounding population of slaveholders

Leaving upon one side their system of administration, and discounting their unalterable perseverance, there

were two things on which the Jesuits appealed to the Indians; and those two things, by the very nature of their

knowledge of mankind, they knew appealed as much to Indians as to any other race of men. Firstly (and in

this writers opposed to them, as Brabo [21] and Azara, [22] both agree), they instilled into the Indians that the

land on which they lived, with missions, churches, herds, flocks, and the rest, was their own property. And in

the second place they told them they were free, and that they had the King of Spain's own edict in

confirmation of their freedom, so that they never could be slaves. Neither of these two propositions

commends itself to many writers on the Jesuits in Paraguay, but for all that it seems to me that in themselves

they were sufficient to account for the firm hold the Jesuits had on their neophytes.

The freedom which the Indians enjoyed under the Jesuit rule might not have seemed excessive to modern

minds and those attuned to the mild rule of the Europeans of today in Africa. Such as it was, it seemed

sufficient to the Guaran�s, and even, in a limited degree, placed them above the Indians of the Spanish

[1] 'Il Cristianesimo Felice nelle Missione dei Padri della Compagnia di Jesu nel Paraguay'.

[3] In all, the missions amounted to thirty; and for their relative situations vide the curious map, the original

of which was published in the work of Padre Pedro Lozano, C. de J., 'Descripcion chorographica del terreno,

rios, arboles y animales de las dilatadissimas provincias del Gran Chaco, Gualanba', etc. Cordoba, del

[4] A letter of a certain Jesuit (name lost, but dated 1715) says that there were at least two thousand canoes in

constant use on the Paran�, and almost as many more on the Uruguay (Brabo, 'Inventarios', etc.).

[6] It is not to be supposed, however, that the Indians were kept in ignorance. P. Cardiel ('Declaracion de la

Verdad', p. 222), quoting from the Cedula Real of 1743, says that 'in every one of the towns there is a school

established to teach reading and writing in Spanish, and that on that account a great number of Indians are to

be met who write well.' Cardiel adds, on the same page, 'Dos de ellos estan copiando ahora esto que yo

[7] Dean Funes ('Ensayo Critico', etc.) puts the income from commerce of the thirty towns at a hundred

thousand dollars, and informs us that, after taxation (to the Crown) had been deducted from it, it was applied

to the maintenance of the churches and other necessary expenses, and by the end of the year little of it

[8] Don Martin de Barua, in his memorial to the King (1736), complaining of the Jesuits, puts the number of

taxable Indians at forty thousand. The Commission appointed to examine into the charges in 1736, which

reported in 1745 (a reasonable interval), affirmed that the taxable Indians only numbered 19,116. Each Indian

paid an annual polltax of one dollar a year to the Crown. In addition to that, every town gave one hundred

dollars a year. The salary of the priests was six hundred dollars a year (Azara, 'Voyage dans l'Am�rique

[11] Per�mas ('De vita et moribus sex sacerdotum Paraguaycorum, Petrus Joanes Andrea', lxxxiv.) states that

it appeared, from papers left after their expulsion, that the income of the Jesuit College of Cordoba just paid

the expenses of administration ('era con escasa diferencia igual � los gastos'). In the Archivo General of

Buenos Ayres, legajo 'Compa�ia de Jes�s', there is a document referred to by P. Hernandez in his

introduction to the work of P. Cardiel ('Declaracion de la Verdad'), which states that in the year of the

[12] Azara, 'Voyage dans l'Am�rique M�ridionale'; also Funes, 'Ensayo Critico de la Historia del Paraguay';

[13] Archivo General de Simancas, Estado, legajo 7,450, folios 21 y 22, 5a, Copia de las cartas (sin firma; la

siguiente es de Nicolas Neenguir�) que se hallaron en letra Guaran� traducidas por los interpreteo nombrados

en las sorpresa hecha al pueblo de San Lorenzo por el Coronel D. Jos� Joaquin de Viana, Gobernador de

Montevideo, el dia 20 de Mayo de 1756: 'El modo de vivir del Padre es, cerrar bien todas las puertas y

quedarse el solo, su Mayordomo, y su muchacho. Son ya Indios de edad, y solo estos asisten solo de dia

adentro, y � las doce salen afuera, y un viejo es quien cuida de la Porteria, y es quien Sierra la puerta quando

descansa el Padre, � quando sale el Padre � ver su chacara. Y aun entonces van solos, sino es con un Indio de

hedad quien los giua y cuida de el caballo y despues de esto � misa y � la tarde al Rosario de Maria Santisima

llamandonos con toque de campana, y antes de esto � los muchachos y muchachittas los llama con una

camp�nilla y despues de eso el bueno de el Padre entra ha ense�arles la Doctrina, y el persinarse de el mismo

modo, todos los dias de fiesta nos Predica la palabra de Dios, del mismo modo el Santo Sacramento de la

Penitencia y de la Communion, en estas cosas se exercitta el bueno del Padre y todas las noches se sierra la

porteria y la llave se lleva al aposento del Padre y solo se vuelve � abrir por la ma�ana quando entra el

Sachristan y los cosineros. . . . 'Los Padres todas las ma�anas nos dicen misas, y despues de misa, se van a su

aposento y hai cogen un poco de aqua caliente con Yerva y no otra cosa mas; despues de esto sale a la puerta

de su aposento y ahai todos los que oyeron misa se arrimen a besarle la mano, y despues de esto sale afuera a

ver los Indios si trabajan en los oficios que cada uno tiene, y despues se van a su aposento a resar el oficio

divino, en su libro, y para que Dios le ayude en todas sus cosas. A las once de el dia van a comer un poquitto,

no � comer mucho solo coge cinco plattitos y solo beve una vez el vino, no llenando un vaso peque�o, y

aguardiente nunca lo toman y el vino no lo hai en nuestro pueblo, solo lo traen de la Candelaria segun lo que

envia el Padre Superior lo trahen de acia Buenos Aires. . . . Despues que sale de comer y para descansar an

poco, y mientras descansa salen fuera los que assisten en la casa del Padre, y los que trabajan dentro en

algunas obras y tamvien el Sachristan y el cosinero: todos estos salen fuera y quando no se toca la campana

estan serradas las puertas, y solo un viejo es el que cuida de las puertas, y quando vuelvan a tocar la campana,

vuelve este a abrirlas para que vuelvan a entrar los que trabajan dentro, y el Padre Coge el Brebiario no a ir a

parte ninguna. A la tarde tocan la campanilla paraque se recojan las criatturas, y entre el Padre � ensenarles la

[14] Perhaps the entire isolation of the Jesuits in these two provinces accounts for their absolute quiet; and if

this is so, it goes far to prove that they were right to attempt the same isolation in Paraguay. The comparative

[15] For 'reasoning men', and how this monstrous superstition still prevails in Venezuela, see the charming

book of S. Perez Triana, 'De Bogota al Atlantico', etc., pp. 156158 (Paris: Impresa Sud Americana). A really

interesting book of travels, without cant, and without an eye on the public. Strange to relate, the author seems

[19] Azara, 'Viage al America Meridional', tomo 2, cap 12. 'La corte orden� a Don Francisco de Alfaro oidor

de la Audiencia de Charcas pasar al Per� en calidad de visitador. La primera medida que tom� en 1612 fue

ordenar que ninguno en lo sucesivo pudiese ir a casa de Indios, con el pretexto de reducirlos, y que no se

diesen encomiendas del modo que hemos explicado, es decir con servicio personal. No alcanzo sobre que

podia fundarse una medida tan politicamente absurda: pero como este oidor favorecia las ideas de los

[21] Brabo, 'Inventarios de los bienes hallados a la expulsion de las Jesuitas'.

Don Jos� de Antequera Appoints himself Governor of Asuncion Unsettled state of affairs in the town

He is commanded to relinquish his illegal power He refuses, and resorts to arms After some

success he is defeated and condemned to be executed He is shot on his way to the scaffold Renewed

FROM THE DEPARTURE of Cardenas in 1650, to about 1720, was the halcyon period of the Jesuit

missions in Paraguay. During that time things went on in the missions after the fashion I have attempted to

describe. The people passed their time in their semicommunistic labour, sweetened by constant prayer; their

pastors may or may not have done all that was possible to instruct them in the science of the time; but, still,

the Indian population did not decrease, as it was observed to do from year to year in other countries of

America and in the Spanish settlements in Paraguay. [1] During this period the Jesuits had made repeated

efforts, but without much real success, to establish missions amongst the wild equestrian tribes in the Gran

Chaco upon the western bank of the river Paraguay. Nothing, apparently, pointed to the events which,

beginning in the year 1721, finally led to their expulsion, or, at least, furnished additional reasons to King

Charles III. to include the Jesuits in Paraguay in the general expulsion of their order from the dominions of

In that year (1721) Don Jos� de Antequera was appointed to succeed the Governor of Paraguay, Don Diego

de los Reyes Balmaceda, when his term of office had expired. The situation was, as often happened in the

Spanish colonies, complicated by an inquiry into the conduct of the Governor (Balmaceda), in progress at the

High Court of Charcas, which court, as in the case of Cardenas, acted most cautiously, both on account of its

position, so far from Paraguay, and on account of the inordinate procrastination of everything connected with

the Spanish law. If Balmaceda were condemned, then Antequera would step into his shoes at once. If, on the

other hand, he were acquitted, Antequera would have to wait until the legal time of office had run its course.

So far all was in order, but the High Court, either in doubt of its own wisdom or of its power to pronounce

judgment definitely, had issued a decree suspending Balmaceda from his functions, but without either

condemning or acquitting him. This, too, they did after having taken more than three years to sift the

evidence and summon witnesses, who either had to cross the country on a mule at the imminent risk of death

by famine or by Indians, or, having descended the river Plate to Buenos Ayres (which journey often took a

month), wait for a ship to take them round Cape Horn to Lima, and from thence travel to Charcas on

Don Jos� de Antequera y Castro was born at Lima, and being, as Father Charlevoix [2] says, an able,

eloquent, but vain and most ambitious man, endowed with plenty of imagination, some talent, and but little

ballast, was not content to wait till time should place him in his governorship. So, hearing that a judge

inquisitor was to be sent to Paraguay to inquire into the case, and having graduated himself and held the

position of procurator fiscal in the Charcas, he solicited the post, and by some error was appointed.

No sooner was the appointment signed than straight he posted off to Paraguay. As he had studied in the

college of the Jesuits at La Plata, his first visit was to the reductions of the Jesuits. The missionaries received

him well, and sent a troop of Indians to escort him to the boundary of their territories, never suspecting what

Antequera was about to do. Having heard that the Governor, Balmaceda, was at a distant port upon the

Paran�, Antequera hastened to Asuncion. Arrived there, the same madness of authority seems to have come

on him which came fifty or sixty years before his time on Cardenas. Finding no special seat reserved for him

in the Cathedral, he publicly reproved the dean, to the great scandal of the worshippers. This seems not to

have lost him the respect of the citizens of Asuncion, who were accustomed to all kinds of vagaries, both of

their rulers and their spiritual guides. No sort of violence to laws and customs seems ever to affect a people

unless the violence is done to benefit them, when instantly they rise against the breaker of the law, however

But the devoted citizens of Asuncion were so accustomed to perpetual turmoil that, as Dean Funes [3] says,

'they only stopped when it was absolutely necessary for them to breathe.' Even the overpraised citizens of

Athens at the time of Pericles, who must have been in all their ways so like the Athenians of today, were not

more instant in the Agora or diligent in writing patriots' names on oystershells than the noisy mob of

halfbreed patriots who in the sandy streets of Asuncion were ever agitating, always assembling, and doing

everything within their power to show the world the perfect picture of a democratic State. Strange that such

turbulent and patriotic people should have been ancestors of those whom I, after the termination of the war

with Buenos Ayres and Brazil in 1870, knew as lethargic and downtrodden, as if the great dictator, Dr.

Francia, whom the country people, speaking in bated breath, called 'El Difunto', had still oppressed the land.

Into the turbulent hotbed of Asuncion fell Antequera, one of those Creoles of Peru who, born with talent and

well educated, seemed, either from the circumstances of their birth or the surroundings amongst which they

passed their youth, to differ as entirely from the Spaniards as if they had been Indians and not Creoles of

white blood. Like Cardenas, Antequera was endowed with eloquence; but, unlike Cardenas, he set no store on

eloquence upon its own account, but only used it for his own advancement in the world. Finding the

Governor absent from Asuncion and lying under a decree suspending him from all his functions, it seems at

once to have occurred to Antequera to seize his place. On this account, having ingratiated himself with some

of those opposed to Balmaceda, he raised an army, and sent to seize him; but the Governor, having notice of

the plot, escaped to Corrientes, and Antequera instantly assumed his post. This was too much for the Viceroy

of Peru, who, though he had befriended Antequera in the past, had some respect for law. Immediately he

issued a decree replacing Balmaceda in the governorship, and ordering Antequera to give him back the power

he had usurped. This Antequera had no thought of doing, and he embarked on a career of violence which

induced some to believe he intended to proclaim himself an independent king. Whether this was or was not

the case, a state of things arose in Paraguay more pandemonic even than in the good old times of Cardenas.

The Jesuits, not having seen their way to sustain the cause of their expupil, were expelled once more (1725),

and as before took ship for Corrientes amongst the tears of the people, their historians say, [4] and as Iba�ez

and those who have written against them affirm as strongly, amongst universal joy. Certain it is that in

Asuncion they played a different part from that played by them in the mission territory, and no doubt mixed,

as did the other Orders of religion, in the intrigues which never seemed to cease in the restless capital of

Not being content with the expulsion of the Jesuits, Antequera defeated several generals sent against him by

the Viceroy of Peru, and by a coup de main took prisoner the exGovernor Balmaceda, having surprised him

in his house in Corrientes, and carried him back to Asuncion under a close guard. The usual reign of terror

then began, and everything fell into confusion, till at last the King (Philip V.) in 1726 commanded that the

Jesuits should be reinstated in their college in Asuncion, and that the missions should be taken from the

jurisdiction of the Governors of Paraguay and placed under the control of the Governor of the River Plate, as

had been previously done in the case of the other Jesuit missions beyond the Uruguay. But Spain was far

away, and on one pretext or another so much delay occurred that it was not till March 18, 1728, that the

Jesuits were reinstated in the college in Asuncion, which they were now fated to hold but for a little space. At

last the Viceroy of Peru, the Marquess of Castel Fuerte, sent Don Bruno de Zavala with a sufficient army and

six thousand Indians from the missions against the usurper Antequera, who fled for refuge to the Franciscan

convent in Cordoba, where he remained, till, finding his position quite untenable, he fled to Charcas, where

he was arrested, and sent to Lima to await his trial. Four years he waited in perfect liberty, going and coming

about the town as it best pleased him, whilst the High Court heard evidence, wrote to Madrid, received

instructions from the King, and generally displayed the incapacity which in all ages has been the chief

In 1731 an order came from Madrid to execute him, and without loss of time he was placed on a horse draped

all in black, and, preceded by a herald and guarded by a troop of guards, taken out to the public square to be

beheaded. But the good people of the capital, who, in the fashion of the world, would not most probably have

stirred a step to save a saint, were mightily concerned to see a rogue receive his due deserts. The streets were

filled with thousands crying out 'Pardon!' stones flew, and the affair looked so threatening that the Viceroy

had to get on horseback and ride amongst the crowd to calm the tumult. The people met him with a shower of

stones, and he, fearing the prisoner would escape, called on his guards to fire upon him. Four balls pierced

Antequera, who fell dying from his horse into the arms of two accompanying priests. Thus the most turbulent

of all the Governors of Paraguay ceased troubling, and the executioner, after having cut off his head,

exhibited it to the people from the scaffold, with the usual moral aphorism as to the traitor's fate.

The triumph of the Jesuits in Asuncion was but momentary, following the general rule of triumphs, which

take their way along the street with trumpets and with drums amid the acclamations of the crowd, and then,

the pageant over, the chief actors fall back again into the struggles and the commonplace of ordinary life.

Between the years 1728 and 1730 the people of Asuncion had been more eager in pursuit of liberty [5] than

was their usual wont. The citizens were divided into camps, and daily fought amongst the sandy streets and

shady orangebordered lanes which radiate from almost every quarter of the town. The rival bands of

madmen were styled respectively the 'Communeros' and the 'Contrabandos', and to the first Antequera

throughout his residence in Lima gave all the assistance in his power. Neither of the two seems to have had

the most elementary idea of real patriotism, or any wish for anything beyond the momentary triumph of the

miserable party to which each belonged. One doctrine they held in commona hatred of the Jesuits, and of

the influence they exercised against the enslaving of the Indians, which was the aim of 'Contrabandos' and of

'Communeros' alike. One of the rival chieftains of the factions having fled for refuge to the missions, the

people of Asuncion assembled troops to take him from his sanctuary by force. Arrived upon the frontier of

the Jesuit territory, they found themselves opposed by an army of the Indians, who looked so formidable that

the troops retired to Asuncion, and the leaders, foiled in the field, and not having force to attack the Jesuits in

their own territory, set vigorously to inflame the minds of the people against them.

They worked with such success that when, in 1732, the news of Antequera's death reached Paraguay, the

people, inflamed with the idea that he was sacrificed to the hatred of the Jesuits, rose and expelled them once

again. The constant expulsions of the Jesuits from Asuncion, the turmoils in the State, and the fact that every

now and then the Indians had to take arms to defend their territory, acted most mischievously on the

reductions, both in Paraguay and in those between the Paran� and Uruguay. Whole tribes of Indians, recently

converted, went back to the woods; land was left quite untilled, and on the outskirts of the mission territory

the warlike tribes of Indians, still unsubdued, raided the cattle, killed the neophytes, and carried off their

wives as slaves. But still, in spite of all, the Indians clung to their priestsas they said, from affection for the

religious care they had bestowed, but quite as possibly from the instinctive knowledge that, between the

raiding Portuguese and the maddening patriots in Asuncion, their only safeguard against slavery lay in the

Jesuits. Most fortunately for Paraguay at the time (1734), Don Bruno de Zavala, perhaps the most energetic

of the Spaniards in the King's service in America, was Viceroy in the River Plate. Having received orders to

quiet the dissensions in Asuncion, in spite of being nearly seventy years of age, and having lost an arm in the

Italian wars, he marched at once, taking but forty soldiers in his train, as, war being imminent with Portugal,

it was not safe to deplete the slender forces in the River Plate. Arrived in Paraguay, he entered the Jesuit

missions at the Reduction of San Ignacio Guazu,* and, having appealed to the provincial of the Order for his

aid, speedily found himself at the head of a large army of the Indians. After some skirmishes he was in a

position to enter Asuncion and force the people to receive him as their Governor. By one of those revulsions

so frequent in a crowd of reasonable men, the people begged him to invite the Jesuits to return. They did so

(1735), and were received in state, the Governor, the Bishop, and the chief clergy and officials of the place

attending Mass in the Cathedral with lighted candles in their hands. His duty over, Don Bruno de Zavala set

off for Chile, where he had been appointed Governor, and on his journey, at the town of Santa F�, died

suddenly, exhausted with the battles, marchings and countermarchings, rebellions, Indian incursions, the

turbulence of the people in the towns, and the other cares which formed the daily duties of a Spanish officer

in South America at the middle of the eighteenth century. [7] The next ten years were on the whole peaceful

and profitable for the Indians of the missions and for the Jesuits. The Indians followed quietly their Arcadian

lives, except when now and then a contingent of them was required to assist in any of the wars, which at that

time were ceaseless throughout the eastern part of South America. The Jesuits pushed out their spiritual

frontiers, advancing on the north amongst the Tobatines of the woods, and on the west endeavouring to

From the conquest of Peru, when those Indians who had been but recently brought under the empire of the

Incas retreated into the Chaco, it had been the refuge of the fiercest and most indomitable tribes. The Spanish

colonists, the ardour of the first conquest spent, had settled down mainly to agricultural pursuits. Few had

efficient firearms, and on the whole, though turbulent amongst themselves, they had become unwarlike. [8]

The very name of the wild Indians (Los Indios Bravos) spread terror up and down the frontiers. This terror,

which I remember still prevalent both in Mexico and on the pampas of the Argentine Republic, not more than

fiveandtwenty years ago, was keener upon the confines of the Chaco than anywhere in South America,

The Tobas, Mataguayos, Lules, Aguilotas, Abipones, and the rest, together with the warlike nations of the

Vilelas and the Guaycur�s, had from the first rejected Christianity. Attempts had several times been made to

establish settlements amongst them, but the ferocity of all the tribes, their nomad habitsfor many of them

passed their lives on horsebackand the peculiar nature of their country, a vast domain of swamp, pierced

by great rivers quite unknown to the Spanish settlers, had hitherto combined to render every effort vain. But,

notwithstanding this, the Jesuits laboured incessantly, and not without success, amongst the wildest of the

Chaco tribes. The gentle and eccentric Father Martin Dobrizhoffer passed many years amongst the Abipones,

of whom he wrote his charming book. He enumerates many tribes, of whom he says [9] 'these are for the

Nothing, perhaps, displays the Jesuits at their best, more than their efforts in the Chaco. The enormous

territory was sparsely peopled by about seventy tribes, [10] whereof there were fifteen or sixteen of

considerable size. Hardly two tribes spoke dialects by which they could communicate with one another, and

almost every one of them lived in a state of warfare, not only with the Spaniards, but with the neighbouring

tribes. The inventories preserved by Brabo [11] show us the town of Paisanes in the Chaco, with its rough

wooden houses, and the Jesuits' habitation in the middle of the place, stockaded, and without doors, and with

but narrow openings in the wall, through which the missionaries crept. The inside of the house contained five

or six rough rooms, almost unfurnished, but for a few religious books and a plentiful supply of guns. [12]

Their beds were of unvarnished wood, with curtains of rough cotton spun by the Indians. Sometimes they had

a sofa of leather slung between four stakes, a rack for medicine bottles, and for the wine for Mass. Lastly, one

priest, in the settlement amongst the Toquitistines, had among his books copies of Cervantes and Quevedo;

one hopes he read them half smiling, half with a tear in his eye, for your true humour is akin to tears. Perhaps,

reading 'Don Quixote' or 'El Gran Tacano', the poor priest forgot his troubles, and, wandering with Sancho in

Throughout the territory of the Gran Chaco there were but seven reductions established by the Jesuits. These

were San Jos� de Bilelas, with its little town Petacas; San Juan Bautista de los Iristines, with its townlet of the

same name; San Esteban de los Lules, with the town of Miraflores; Nuestra Senora del Buen Consejo de los

Omarapas, capital Ortega; Nuestra Se�ora de Pilar de los Paisanes, with Macapillo as its centre; Nuestra

Senora del Rosario de los Tobas, with its chief place called San Lucas; and, lastly, the establishment amongst

the Abipones, known as La Concepcion. In all these missions the Jesuits lived in constant peril of their lives.

In reading their old chronicles one finds the records of their obscure and halfforgotten martyrdoms, their

sufferings, and the brief record of their deaths by an arrow or a club. In 1711 Father Cavallero, with all his

following, was slain by the savage Pinzocas. In 1717 Father Romero, having, as a Jesuit writer says, 'nothing

but moral force behind him,' [14] was slain with twelve companions of the Guaran�s of Paraguay. In 1718

Fathers Arco and Blende, Sylva and Maceo, received their dustedover martyrs' crowns.

Right up the western bank of the river Paraguay, in the old maps, the crosses mark the sites where Jesuits

were slain. That they all died to further crafty schemes, or for some hidden purpose of a Machiavelian nature,

even a Dominican will scarcely urge. That they did goodmore or less good than Protestant fanatics of the

same kidney might have achievedit were invidious to inquire. That which is certain is that they were

singlehearted men, faithful unto the end to what they thought was right, faithful even to the shedding of

their own blood, which is, one may believe, the way in which the scriptural injunction should be rightly read.

In the dim future, when some shadow of commonsense dawns on the world, and when men recognise that it

is better to let others follow their destiny as it best pleases them, without the officious interference of their

fellows, it may be that they will say all missionaries of whatsoever sect or congregation should have stayed at

home, and not gone gadding to the desert places of the earth seeking to remedy the errors of their God by

their exertions; but whilst the ideal still remains of sacrifice (which may, for all I know, be useless in itself, or

even harmful), they must perforce allow the Jesuits in Paraguay high rank, or else be stultified.

But in the Chaco the Jesuits found conditions most different from those prevailing in their missions between

the Uruguay and Paran�. Instead of open plains, vast swamps; instead of docile semiArcadians like the

Guaran�s, who almost worshipped them, fierce nomad horsemen, broken into a hundred little tribes, always at

war, and caring little for religion of any sort or kind. Again, there seems in the Chaco to have been no means

of amassing any kind of wealth, as all the territory was quite uncultivated and in a virgin state; but, still, the

settlements had existed long enough for cattle to increase. [15] Lastly, the incursions of the barbarous tribes

were a constant menace both to the Jesuits and their neophytes. Yet in their indefatigable way the Jesuits

made considerable progress amongst the Chaco tribes, as both the curious 'History of the Abipones' by Father

Besides their seven establishments in the Gran Chaco, they had three establishments in the north of Paraguay

in the great woods which fringe the central mountain range of the country, known as the Cordillera de

M'baracay�. These missions, called San Joaquin del Tarum�, San Estanislao, and Belen, were quite apart

from all the other missions of the Guaran�s, far distant from the Chaco, and removed by an enormous distance

from those of the Order in the Moxos and amongst the Chiquitos, forming, as it were, an oasis in the recesses

of the Tarumensian woods. These three reductions, founded respectively in 1747, [17] 1747, and 1760, were,

as their dates indicate, the swansong of the Jesuits in Paraguay. Founded as they were far from the Spanish

settlements, they were quite removed from the intrigues and interferences of the Spanish settlers, which were

the curse of the other missions on the Paran�. The Tobatines Indians [18] were of a different class to the

Guaran�s, though possibly of the same stock originally. Not having come in contact until recent years with

the Spaniards, and having had two fierce and prolonged wars with the nearest settlements, they had remained

more in their primitive condition than any of the Indians with whom the Jesuits had come in contact in

Paraguay. During the short period of Jesuit rule amongst them (17461767) things seem to have gone on in a

halfArcadian way. In San Joaquin, Dobrizhoffer, as he says himself, devoted eight years of unregretted

labour to the Indians. Most certainly he was one of the Jesuits who understood the Indians best, and his

descriptions of them and their life are among the most delightful which have been preserved. He tells of the

romantic but fruitless search during eighteen months throughout the forests of the Tarum� by Fathers Yegros,

Escandon, Villagarcia, and Rodriguez, for the Itatines who had left the reduction of Nuestra Senora de Santa

Then, commenting upon the strangeness of all affairs sublunary, he relates that accident at length effected

what labour could not do. In 1746 Father Sebastian de Yegros, after a search of forty days, came on the

Indiansas it were, directed by Providence, or, as we now say, accident. He built a town for them, and, as

Dobrizhoffer says, 'assembled them in Christian polity.' To the newfounded village cattle of every kind were

sent, with clothesuseful, of course, to those who had never worn themaxes, and furniture, and lastly a

few music masters, [19] without whose help those who build cities spend their toil in vain.

To the new town (in which the simplehearted priest remained eight years), in 1753, came Don Carlos

Morphi, an Irishman, and Governor of Paraguay; and, having stayed five days with Dobrizhoffer, departed,

marvelling at the accuracy with which the newmade Christians (Cristianos nuevos) managed their

doublebasses, their flageolets, their violins, and, in general, all their instruments, whether of music or of

Modestly, but with prolixity, as befits a virtuous, Godfearing man, the simple Jesuit relates a special

instance of the way in which he was enabled to work both for his own glory and for the profit of the Lord.

Not far from San Estanislao was situate the forest of M'baevera, in which grew quantities of trees from which

the yerbamat� (Paraguayan tea) was made. To reach it was a work of pain and trouble, for through the

woods a track called a picada had to be cut; the rivers were deep, bridgeless, and had to have branches

An expedition having been sent under a certain Spaniard called Villalba to collect yerba, came suddenly upon

a deserted Indian hut. As they had started quite unarmed, except with knives and axes to cut down the

boughs, a panic seized them, and, instead of collecting any leaves, [21] they hurried back to San Estanislao.

No sooner did Dobrizhoffer hear the news than he set out to find the Indians, with a few neophytes, upon his

own account. Having travelled the 'mournful solitudes' for eighteen days, they came upon no sign of Indians,

and returned footsore and hungry, 'the improvement of our patience being our sole recompense.'

He himself walked all the way, and 'often barefoot', suffering 'what neither I can describe nor yet my reader

credit.' The missionary calling has undergone considerable change since 1750. Hardships which the greater

faith or stronger constitutions of the missionaries of the last century rendered endurable are now largely fallen

out of fashion, and your missionary seldom walks barefoot, even in a wood, because to do so would give

Though unsuccessful in his search that year, Dobrizhoffer, not daunted by his barefoot marching, set out

again upon the Gospel trail next spring. After another journey of some twenty days, during the whole course

of which it rained incessantly, he came on a community of seemingly quite happy sylvans, whom he

proceeded to convert. In the first hut he met with there were eight doors, and in it dwelt some sixty

Indiansa palmbuilt, grassthatched phalanstery, with hammocks slung from the rude beams, in which

'these heathen' used to sleep. Each separate family had its own fire, on the hearth of which stood mugs and

gourds and pots of rudelyfashioned earthenware. Naked and not ashamed 'these savages', and the men wore

upon their heads high crowns of parrot feathers. For arms they carried bows and arrows, and the first man

Dobrizhoffer saw was holding a dead pheasant in one hand, and in the other a short bow. In the woods around

the phalanstery was an 'amazing' quantity of maize, of fruits of divers sorts, and of tobacco. From the hives

which the wild bees make in hollow trees, they collected honey in large quantities, which served them (at

Their name for the god they worshipped was Tupa, but 'of that God and his commandments they care to

know but little.' This sounds ambiguous, and would appear at first sight as if the confidence betwixt the

creators and their God had been but slight. Perhaps the ambiguity may be set down to the translator [22] who

A thing remarkable enough when one considers how prone mankind is to act differently was that, although

the Itatines knew an evil spirit under the name of Ana, yet they paid little adoration to him, apparently content

Those hapless, harmless folk, as innocent of God and devil, right and wrong, and all the other things which

by all rights they should have known, as they are said to be implanted in the mind of man, no matter what his

state, seem to have lived quite happily in their involuntary sin. [23] But Dobrizhoffer, in his simple faith and

zeal for what he thought was right, wept bitter tears when he thought upon their unregenerate state.

A sycophantic Guaran� from the reductions then took up his parable, and said: 'God save ye, brothers; we are

come to visit you as friends. This fatherpriest is God's own minister, and comes to visit you, and pray for

your estate.' An aged Indian interrupted him, saying he did not want a fatherpriest, and that St. Thomas in

the past had prayed sufficiently, as fruits of every sort abounded in the land. The Indian, in his

unsophisticated way, seems to have thought the presence of a priest acted but as manure on the ground where

he abode; but the Jesuit, almost as simpleminded as himself, took it in kindliness, and journeyed with the

Indian to a large village about three days away. Arrived there, all the inhabitants of the place sat in a circle

round the missionary. They appeared (he says) in so much modesty and silence 'that I seemed to behold

statues, and not live Indians.' To awaken their attention he played upon the viol d'amore, and, having thus

captured their ears, began to preach to them. The good priest probably believed all that he said, for, after

dwelling on the perils of the road, he said: 'My friends, my errand is to make you happy.' It did not seem to

him that their free life in woods, in which abounded maize, fruits, and tobacco, with game of every kind,

could possibly have induced content. Content, as Christians know, comes but with faith, and a true

knowledge of the dogma is above liberty. Kindly, but muddleheadedly, he deplored their lot, their want of

clothes, their want of interest in their God, their lack of knowledge of that God's commands. Then, coming to

the point, he spoke of hell, and told the astonished Indians that it was quite impossible for them to avoid its

flames, unless, taught by a priest, they came to know God's law. He then briefly (as he says) explained the

mysteries of our faith. They listened rapt, except that 'the boys laughed a little' when he spoke of hell. [24]

Nothing more painful than to see a child laughing unconscious of its peril in the traffic of a crowded street,

and we may well believe that the kindhearted Dobrizhoffer shuddered at the laughter of these children when

he reflected that had he taken the wrong path, crossing the marshes or in the woods, the laughers had been

damned. Much more he said to them after exhausting hell, and, to 'add weight' to his oration, presented each

of them with scissors, knives, glass beads, axes, small lookingglasses, and fishinghooks, for he knew well

He says himself quite frankly, 'I seemed to have borne down all before me because I had mingled my oration

with a copious largess.' [26] Glass beads and lookingglasses have from the time when the first Christian

missionary preached to the Indians been potent factors in conversion, and still today do yeoman service in

Seated around the fire 'smoking tobacco through a reed', and pondering perchance over the mysteries of the

'I have' (said he) 'conceived an affection for the fatherpriest, and hope to enjoy his company throughout my

life. My daughter is the prettiest girl in the whole world, and I am now resolved to give her to the

fatherpriest, that he may always stay with me, and with my family, here in the woods.'

The Indians from the missions broke into laughter, after the fashion of all those who, knowing but a little,

think that they are wise. The cacique, who knew nothing, was astounded that any man, no matter what his

calling, could live without a wife, and asked the Jesuit if the strange thing was true. His doubts being

satisfied, they fell discoursing on the nature of the Deity, a subject not easy of exhaustion, and difficult to

treat of through the medium of an interpreter. 'We know' (the cacique said) 'that there is someone who dwells

in heaven.' This vagueness put the missionary upon his mettle, and he set out at once to expatiate upon the

attributes of God. They seemed to please the cacique, who inquired, 'What is it that displeases, then, the

Lies, calumnies, adulteries, thefts, all were enumerated, and received the Indian's assent; but the injunction

not to kill provoked a bystander to ask if it was not permitted to a man to slay those who attacked his life. He

'Fanatical casuist' is a stout argument in the mouth of a man nurtured upon Suarez and Molina, but no doubt it

did good service, and Dobrizhoffer uses it when speaking of the chief. But Dobrizhoffer did better work than

mere theological disputation, for he prevailed upon eighteen of the Indians to accompany him to the

settlement of San Joaquin; and after having 'for some months tried the constancy' of a youth called Arapotiy�,

he admitted him to the sacrament of baptism, and 'not long afterwards united him in marriage according to

the Christian rites.' It is evident that baptism should precede marriage; but it is an open question as to the

duration of the interval between the two ceremonies, and we may be permitted to wonder whether, after all,

both might not be advantageously dispensed at the same time. In the case of Arapotiy� the system worked

satisfactorily, for he 'surpassed in every kind of virtue, and might have been taken for an old disciple of

Christianity.' Even 'old Christians' occasionally, despite their more laborious induction into the rites and

customs of their faith, have fallen from grace, perhaps from the undue prolongation of the term between the

In the case of another youth (one Gato) things did not go so smoothly, for though he, too, by his conduct

obtained both baptism and Christian wedlock, Dobrizhoffer adds without comment, 'not many months after

he died of a slow disease.' [27] The slow disease was not improbably the nostalgia of the woods, from which

The labours of the Jesuits in the three isolated missions in the north of Paraguay [28] seem to have been as

successful as those in the Chaco were unfortunate. In dealing with the wild equestrian tribes of the Gran

Chaco, the system of the Jesuits was not so likely to achieve success as amongst the peaceful Guaran�s. That

of the Spanish settlers was entirely ineffectual, and has remained so down to the present day, when still the

shattered remnants of the Lules, Lenguas, Mocobios, and the rest, roam on their horses or in their canoes

about the Chaco and its rivers, having received no other benefits from contact with the European races but

[1] P. Cardiel ('Declaracion de la Verdad', p. 449), quoting from Xarque ('La Vida Apostolica del Padre

Joseph Cataidino', Zaragoca por Juan de Ypa, 1664), says, re the diminution of the Indians under the Spanish

rule: 'Para que se vea cuanta razon tiene el Juez reparese que segun los padrones del siglo pasado (vg.

16001700) en la ciudad y jurisdicion de Santiago del Estero habia 80,000 Indios y ahora, apenas hay

ochenta. En la jurisdicion de Cordoba de Tucuman, habia 40,000; hoy no hay 40. En la jurisdicion y

[3] Funes, 'Ensayo de la Historia Civil del Paraguay', etc., vol. ii., cap. v., p. 231.

[5] Liberty is commonly only attained by blood. It is, I think, quite legitimate in playing the liberty game to

kill all who disagree with your party, or to banish them. In these degenerate times, lovers of liberty have to

[6] Guazu = 'great' in Guaran�. It is frequent in placenames both in Paraguay and Corrientes.

[7] Dean Funes, vol. ii., cap. xii., p. 372, says of Zavala: 'Por caracter era manso, pero us� algunas veces de

severidad, porque sabia que para servir bien a los hombres es preciso de cuando en cuando tener valor de

desagradarlos. . . . La pobreza en que murio despues de tantos a�os de mando, es una prueba clasica de que

[8] In the long and interesting letter of Jaime Aguilar, the provincial of the Jesuits in Paraguay, to the King of

Spain (Philip V., 1737), occurs the following passage: 'Y si alguna vez, que no son muchas, se animan los

Espa�oles a perseguir y castigar los Indios, muchos huyen de la tierra, o se esconden, por no ir a la entrada. . .

. Otras (vezes) quando llegan all�, el Enemigo les quitan la Cavallada, dexandolos a pie y se vuelven a casa

como pueden.' This I have seen myself, not thirty years ago, on the frontiers of the Argentine Republic. The

popular Argentine poem, 'La Vuelta de Martin Fierro', by Jos� Hernandez (Buenos Ayres, 1880), has an

illustration showing an expedition against the Indians returning. Some of the men are on foot; others are

riding two on the same horse, and officers are animating their men with the flat of their swords.

[11] Francisco Xavier Brabo, 'Inventarios de los bienes hallados � la expulsion de los Jesuitas' (Madrid,

[12] The lists of cannons, guns, and arms of all kinds in the inventories of the Chaco towns, preserved by

Brabo, serve to show not only the dangers to which the Jesuits were exposed, but also how thoroughly the

[13] Another priest, the list of whose effects Brabo has preserved in his 'Inventarios', had a book called 'El

Alivio de Tristes'. Even a Protestant may be excused for hoping that it merited its title.

[14] Cr�tineau Joly, tome v., chap. ii., p. 95. Your moral force is excellent in a civilized country; but your

modern missionary usually prefers something more in accordance with the spirit of the times.

[15] The total number of cattle was 78,171, as against 698,353 in the towns of the Guaran�s. See Brabo,

'Inventarios de los bienes hallados � la expulsion de los Jesuitas', Appendix, p. 668.

[16] 'History of the Abipones', from the Latin of Martin Dobrizhoffer, London, 1822. It is a curious

circumstance that in the missions in the Chaco there were negro slaves, though in the Paraguayan missions

they were unknown. In the inventory of the town of San Lucas appear the following entries, under the head of

'Negros Esclavos': 'Justo, que sirve de capataz en el campo; ser� de edad de veinte y siete a�os, mas � menos

segun su aspecto.' 'Item, Pedro, ser� de diez y seis a�os y es medio fatuo.' 'Item, Jos� Felix, ser� de un mes y

[17] Though 1747 was the date of the final founding of these reductions, as early as 1697 about four hundred

Indians were discovered in the woods of the Tarum� by Fathers Robles and Ximenes, and established in the

mission of Nuestra Se�ora de Fe; but in the year 1721 they all returned to the woods, a famine and an

outbreak of the smallpox having frightened them. After being again established in a mission, and again

[18] Dobrizhoffer calls the Tobatines by the name of Itatines. Charlevoix and others refer to them as

[20] In 1873, when I visited the outskirts of this forest, the conditions were similar to those which

Dobrizhoffer describes, with the addition that the depopulation of the country, owing to the recent long war,

had allowed the tigers to multiply to an extraordinary degree, and my guide and myself, after feeding our

horses, had to sleep alternately, the waker holding the two horses hobbled and bridled.

[21] The whole operation of collecting and preparing the leaves of the Ilex Paraguayensis, to make the

yerbamat�, was most curious. Bands of men used to sally out for a sixmonths' expedition, either by land

with bullockwaggons, or up one of the rivers in flatbottomed boats, which were poled along against the

rapid current by crews of six to twelve men. Arrived at the yerbal, as the forest was called, they built shelters,

after the fashion of those in use amongst the larger of the anthropoid apes. Some roamed the woods in search

of the proper trees, the boughs of which they cut down with machetes, whilst others remained and built a

large shed of canes called a barbacoa. On this shed were laid the bundles of boughs brought from the woods,

and a large fire was lighted underneath. During fortyeight hours (if I remember rightly) the toasting went

on; then, when sufficiently dry, the leaves were stripped from the twigs, and placed on a sort of open space of

hard clay, something like a Spanish threshingfloor. On this they were pounded fine, and the powder rammed

into rawhide bags. This concluded the operations, and the yerba was then ready for the 'higgling of the

[23] Charlevoix says, in his 'Histoire de la Nouvelle France', speaking of the Indians in general: 'L'exp�rience

a fait voir qu'il �toit plus � propos de les laisser dans leur simplicit� et dans leur ignorance, que les sauvages

peuvent �tre des bons Chr�tiens sans rien prendre de notre politesse et de notre fac,on de vivre, ou du moins

qu'il falloit laisser faire au tems pour les tirer de leur grossi�ret�, qui ne les emp�che pas de vivre dans une

grande innocence, d'avoir beaucoup de modestie, et de servir Dieu avec une pi�t� et une ferveur, que les

rendent tr�s propres aux plus sublimes op�rations de la gr�ce.' Had more people thought with Charlevoix, and

not been too anxious to draw savages incontrovertibly to our 'politesse' (sic) and 'fa�on', and left more to time

('au tems'), how much misery might have been saved, and how many interesting peoples preserved! For, in

spite of the domination of the AngloSaxon race, it might have been wise to leave other types, if only to

[24] Hell not infrequently seems to have struck the Indians as a joke, for Charlevoix relates that when the first

missionaries expatiated on its flames to the Chirignanos, they said, 'If there is fire in hell, we could soon get

enough water to put it out.' This answer scandalized the good priest, who could not foresee that the flames of

Tophet would be extinguished without the necessity of any other waters than those of indifference.

[27] Padre del Techo, in his 'History of Paraguay', says of the wood Indians that 'they died like plants which,

The Spanish and Portuguese attempt to force new laws on the Indians The Indians revolt against them

THE MISSIONS in the Chaco and the Tarum�, all founded between 1700 and 1760, the last (Belen) but

seven years before the expulsion of the Jesuits from America, go far towards disproving the allegations of

some writers, [1] that the apostolic energy of the first foundations had decayed, and that the Jesuits were

merely living on the good name of the first founders in the beginning of the past century. But let the zeal of

any class of men be what it may, if they oppose themselves to slavery and at the same time are reported to

have lands in which is gold, and resolutely exclude adventurers from them, their doom is sealed. Both crimes

were set down to the Jesuits. Writing in 1784, or twenty years after the expulsion of his order, Dobrizhoffer

refers to the Indians of the reductions as 'being in subjection [2] only to the Catholic King and the royal

Governors, not in dreaded slavery amongst private Spaniards as the other Indians;' and Montoya, Lozano, and

Del Techo, writing in earlier times, all confirm the statement, which is also doubly confirmed by the various

royal edicts on the subject. [3] The reports of goldmines, too, had never ceased, although they had been

repeatedly disproved, and those, together with the stand for freedom for the Indians, led to the events which

finally brought about the expulsion of the Order from the territories where they had worked so long.

In 1740, Gomez de Andrade, Governor for the King of Portugal in Rio de Janeiro, being one of those who

was convinced that the reason why the Jesuits guarded their territories so religiously was that they had mines,

bethought him of a plan. His plan, like most of those conceived on the fantastic reasons which are called 'of

State', took no account of sentiment, and therefore, as mankind are and will ever be a thousand times more

influenced by sentiment than by hard reasoning, was from the first bound of itself to fail.

The colony of Sacramento upon the river Plate had for a hundred years been the source of conflict between

the Spaniards and the Portuguese. [4] Situated as it was almost in front of Buenos Ayres, it served as a depot

for smugglers; and, moreover, being fortified, menaced the navigation both of the Paran� and Paraguay.

Slavers from England, Holland, and the German ports crowded the harbour. Arms of all kinds were stored

there, and were distributed to all adventurers who meditated assaults against the crown of Spain. Twice or

three times it had been taken and restored, the Indians of the missions always rendering most efficient help.

At the time of which I write (1740) it had passed again by treaty under the dominion of the Portuguese, but

still remained a standing menace to the Spaniards. Gomez Andrade advised the court of Lisbon to exchange it

against the seven reductions [5] of the Uruguay, and thus at once to secure a country rich in gold and to adjust

the frontier at the river Uruguay. Nothing appears so simple to a statesman as to exchange one piece of

territory for another. A parchment signed after some international negotiations, and the whole thing is done.

If, though, as happened in this case, one of the territories contains a population such as that which inhabited

the seven towns upon the Uruguay, and which has conquered the country in which it lives from virgin forest,

and defended it against all comers, it sometimes happens that the unreasonable inhabitants, by clinging to

their homes, defeat the statesmen's plans. Yet statesmen, once embarked in any plan, do not stick at such

trifles as the affection of a people for its home, but quietly pursue their path, knowing that that which is

conceived by ministers of State must in the end be beneficial to mankind. Without this patriotic abnegation of

their feelings, no statesmen would be worthy of the name. Indifference to the feelings of others is perhaps the

greatest proof a public man can give of his attachment to the State. After negotiations, lasting many years, in

1750 a treaty was signed between Portugal and Spain agreeing that the former should give up the Colonia del

Sacramento to the Spaniards in exchange for the seven Jesuit towns upon the Uruguay, and that both nations

should furnish a commission to fix the frontiers of the two nations on the Uruguay. [6] On February 15, 1750,

the Spanish court sent to the Jesuits of the seven towns to prepare their Indians to leave their homes and

At that date Fran�ois Retz was General of the Jesuits, and on him devolved the duty of communicating the

orders of the courts of Spain and Portugal to the Jesuits in the missions of the Uruguay. Father Bernard

Neyderdorffer was the man on whom the Provincial of Paraguay (Father Barreda) imposed the task of

communicating to the Indians the wishes of the two courts. Though he had lived already thirtyfive years in

the missions, and knew the Indians well, and was respected by them as a father, he seems at first to have

shrunk from such a task. When the news was brought to the towns upon the Uruguay, none of the Indians at

first would credit it. The caciques (chiefs) of the seven towns declared that they would rather die than leave

their native place. Nothing was heard but lamentations and expressions of hatred of the Portuguese, mingled

with denunciations of the Jesuits themselves, who the poor Indians not unnaturally believed were in league

with Spain to sell them to the Portuguese. But in a little the clamours turned to action, and, not content with

refusing to obey the edict of the two courts, the Indians broke into revolt. Two most important narratives of

this revolt exist, one by Father Cardiel and one by Father Ennis, both of whom were witnesses of the events.

After considerable negotiations, which lasted till 1753, [7] the united troops of Portugal and Spain advanced

into the mission territory to arrange the occupation of the ceded towns. The commissioners of the two nations

were, for Spain, the Marques de Valdelirios, and for Portugal General Gomez Freyre de Andrade, and both of

them appear to have come to America already prejudiced against the Jesuits. On March 24, 1753, Andrade

wrote to Valdelirios, almost before he could have heard anything definite about the mission territory, to

which they both were strangers, telling him that opposition was to be expected, and that the Jesuits were

urging the Indians to revolt. [8] The opposition that the two commissioners so confidently hoped to find, [9]

and which contemporary writers have set forth in its true colours as but the revolt of ignorant Indians

rendered desperate by being arbitrarily dispossessed of lands which they themselves had settled and held for

almost a hundred years, was fraught with serious consequences, not only to the Jesuits in Paraguay, but to the

Order throughout the world at large. For years their enemies had said the Jesuits were endeavouring to set up

in the missions a State quite independent of the Spanish crown. By their own conduct the Jesuits to some

extent had given colour to the report, for by excluding (in the interest of the Indians) all Spaniards from the

mission territories, it looked as if they were at work at something which they wished to keep a secret, as no

one at that time deemed it a serious plea to enter into any line of conduct for the good of Indians, whom in

general the Spanish settlers looked upon as beasts. That it was the best policy they could have possibly

pursued under the circumstances is proved abundantly by the code of instructions laid down by Don

Francisco Bucareli, the Viceroy of Buenos Ayres, under whose auspices the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1760

was carried out. In that code occurs the following article: [10] 'You will not allow any strangers, of whatever

estate, quality, or condition they may be, to reside in the town (that is, of the missions), even if they be

artisans, [11] and much less that they deal or take contracts in them either for themselves or for others, and

you shall take especial care that the Laws of the Indies be executed, and specially those which are contained

in Article 27 of Book IX.; [12] and also if any Portuguese deserters or other persons of whatever conditions

should come to the towns, you will instantly conduct them to this city, taking every precaution to prevent

Still, though their policy was pursued, it did not stop the opponents of the Jesuits from denouncing that very

policy, both at the cession of the seven towns and at the expulsion of the Order from America. The

commissioners, after innumerable delays, having found themselves in 1753 at Santa Tecla, a village near the

Uruguay, it becomes necessary to cast a glance at what the Jesuits themselves were doing, and how they tried

to do their duty as they saw it both to their Sovereign, their Order, and the Indians over whom they ruled. It

seems as if, whilst the superiors of the Order recognised at once the futility of striving against Portugal and

Spain, some of the inferior members secretly set on the Indians to armed resistance to the impolitic decree.

The council of the province (Paraguay) [13] assembled at the Jesuit college in Cordoba, composed of Fathers

Masala, Horos, Caballero, Lopez, and Lozano, sent a memorial [14] both to the Viceroy of Peru and to the

High Court of Charcas. In the memorial they first set forth their loyalty, and then exposed the deceit to which

the ministers of Spain and Portugal had been subjected by their advisers in America. They pointed out most

justly that the treaty was damaging to both the countries concerned, [15] and that in regard to the Indians of

the seven towns peculiarly unjust. Both at Charcas and at Lima their memorial (though diffuse) was

favourably received, and a copy remitted to the King and Council at Madrid. Iba�ez, in his 'Republica

Jesuitica', qualifies the action of the Jesuits in this matter as a 'great crime'. Dean Funes only sees duplicity of

language, but seems to excuse it in the circumstances in which the Jesuits were placed. Certainly, after efforts

extending over almost two hundred years, it was hard on them to see seven of their most flourishing missions

arbitrarily broken up, the Indians driven from their homes, and their territory occupied by those very

Portuguese who for a hundred years had been their persecutors. There was much to say in extenuation, even

for 'duplicity of language', when one remembers that the Jesuits alone (no matter how mistaken their views of

treatment may seem to modern eyes) stood out against the assumption that the Indians were a mere flock of

sheep, who might be driven from their homes on any pretext, or at the exigencies of ministers at courts who

lived ten thousand miles away, and were completely ignorant of the local circumstances. Whether the

memorial influenced the court of Spain is hard to say; but it is certain that when, in 1752, the Marques de

Valdelirios arrived in Buenos Ayres, with him came as a commissioner to fix the boundary between the two

nations of the Uruguay Father Luis de Altamirano, accompanied by his secretary, Rafael de Cordoba, both

members of the Order, and that the Marquis took up his lodging in the college of the Jesuits. There papers

and memorials rained on him: one came from the Bishop of Tucuman, and one from Don Jaime de San Just,

the Governor of Paraguay, with many others from people of inferior note, all in the interest of the Company.

It appears as if Valdelirios thought that these memorials were inspired, for his first action was to publish to

the priests of the seven towns the wishes of his government as to evacuation by the Indians of the territory.

This he did through the prefect of the missions, who seems to have acted in good faith in his endeavours to

carry out the wishes of the Spanish court. Just at that moment Barreda, the Provincial of Paraguay, arrived in

Buenos Ayres, and Valdelirios asked him his opinion as to the measures best calculated to insure the treaty

being quietly carried out. Barreda, though all his interests were against the execution of the treaty, seems to

have acted in good faith. He gave the sensible advice that, as the treaty had been made entirely without taking

into consideration the difficulties of carrying it out, it could not be held a crime to ask the King for some

delay. [16] He advised consulting three exGovernors of Paraguay, who happened to be in Buenos Ayres,

[17] and, lastly, that all hurry, or anything likely to excite the Indians, should be avoided; for it was possible

that they, relying on their numbers and local knowledge, might be able to give much trouble even to the joint

forces of both crowns. He laid before Valdelirios the condition of the reductions, telling him that they were

fertile and well cultivated, [18] and that this of itself would incline the Indians against migrating from their

lands. Lastly, he said it was the opinion of the most experienced of the priests that the Indians would yield

neither to arguments nor reason, for the hatred of the Portuguese had put them quite beside themselves with

fury at the idea of giving up their lands. Valdelirios must have found himself not in too comfortable a state.

Lodged as he was in the college of the Jesuits, he must have felt that most of the advice which was so freely

tendered him was biassed, and to relieve his mind he called a council, at which the Provincial Barreda, Juan

Escadon, his secretary, Altamirano, and Rafael de Cordoba appeared. The council recommended prudence,

and, as the majority were Jesuits, pushed their prudence even beyond Lowland Scotch or north of Ireland

limits, for they proposed to institute a commission which, after three years' investigation, should report at

Buenos Ayres on what it had found out. Commissions, royal or otherwise, have always been a trumpcard in

the hands of governments, since peddling democracy, with show of noses and the like, came in and put an

end to those good old methods which are as dear today to rulers' hearts as they have ever been since the

beginning of the world, and will be whilst election, battle, fitness, talents, wealth, unfitness, or any other

Valdelirios, who was not a fool, saw their design, and instantly despatched Altamirano (1752) to Castillos to

meet Freire de Andrade and the Portuguese, and set about drawing the new frontier line at once. Altamirano,

though a Jesuit, appears (at first at any rate) to have been anxious that the treaty should be carried out. In

1752 (September 22) he wrote [20] from the reduction of San Borja to P. Mathias Stroner, [21] ordering all

the Jesuits to assist in carrying out the evacuation of the seven towns. By his advice Freire de Andrade and

Valdelirios met at Castillos, and, after having laid off some twenty leagues of boundary line, returned

But in the missions things were in a state bordering on revolution. When the letter from the prefect of the

missions reached San Miguel, the Indians assembled outside the church, [22] and having learned the situation

of the lands to which they were to move, their fury knew no bounds. They all refused to stir, saying they had

inherited their lands from their forefathers and by the grace of God. [23] Their example was at once followed

by three more of the towns, and virtually a state of absolute defiance to the orders of the Spanish crown

Just at this moment Altamirano, the commissary, arrived, and found the state of things most serious. [24] The

commissary Altamirano set to work at once to place before the Jesuits of the seven towns the danger they

exposed themselves to if they refused to help him to carry out the orders of the crown. Almost immediately

on his arrival he wrote [25] to Don Jos� de Caruajal y Lancastre to send more troops, and to the various

priests [26] to destroy their powder, and cease to manufacture any more. [27] It is most likely that, if

Altamirano had no secret understanding with his brother Jesuits, his letters must have considerably amazed

them, and certainly they gave offence to the Indians, who declared he could not be a Jesuit at all. Six hundred

Indians, under a chief called Sepe Tyaragu, marched upon Santo Thom�, where Altamirano had taken up his

residence, with the avowed purpose of discussing whether he was a Jesuit or not, and, if the latter supposition

proved correct, of throwing him into the river Uruguay; [28] but Altamirano did not wait their coming, and

returned precipitately to Buenos Ayres. The commission which had set out to mark the limits between the

countries, [29] buried in the woods, or marching along the river, was absolutely unaware of what was going

on amongst the Indians till they arrived in Santa Tecla on February 26, 1753. The first notice that they had of

it was when they found themselves surrounded by a strong force of Indians. One of the commissaries, Don

Juan de Echevarria, is known to have left a curious account of the proceedings, from which Dean Funes,

Historians, like lawyers in conveyancing, catch errors one from another, and transmit them as truths or titles

to posterity. Certain it is that Echevarria sent for the nearest Jesuit priest to mediate, and he luckily, or

unluckily, proved to be that Father Thadeus Ennis, who played so prominent a part in the futile rising which

the enemies of the Jesuits have chosen to dignify with the highsounding title of the 'Jesuit War'.

If Father Ennis really thought the Indians could hold head to both the Spaniards and the Portuguese, or if he

thought that the rising would draw attention to the injustice of the treaty, is difficult to say. Whether, indeed,

he headed it himself, or if he merely accompanied the Indians as their spiritual guide, giving them now and

then the benefit of his advice on matters temporal, after the fashion of the ambitious churchman of all time,

[31] is now unknown. Whatever his opinions were upon this matter, Father Ennis showed himself almost

from the first irreconcilable. He refused to meet the commissioners, and in his place sent a cacique (chief) of

the Indians, one Sepe Tyaragu, an official of the reduction of San Miguel. This chief, seeing the escort of the

commission was but small, 'put on his boots', [32] and took high ground, daring to talk about the rights of

man, of the love of country, and said that liberty consisted in being allowed to enjoy his property in peace,

sentiments which, though admirable enough in a white man's mouth, for men of colour are but fit for

The cacique firmly refused to vacate his lands, and said the King of Spain, as he lived far away, could not

have understood the bearing of affairs in Paraguay. Such arguments as these, together with the perhaps

offensive tone of the cacique, had such effect on the commissioners that, after having threatened him with

vengeance, which at the time they had no power to carry out, they both withdrew out of the territory.

As Funes [33] well observes, the Spaniards had established themselves in these parts (the River Plate and

Paraguay) to obtain a limitless submission from the Indians. Any resistance drove them to fury, and excited

them to take revenge. As all the Indians' crime was their unwillingness to quit the lands on which they had

been born, it seemed a little hard to slaughter them, even before their petition to the King had been refused.

Most probably all had been prepared before, for Valdelirios at once issued an order, which he had the power

to do under a sealed letter from the King, to the Governor of Buenos Ayres, Andonaegui, to prepare for war.

Active hostilities broke out in 1754, and Father Ennis has preserved a daybyday account, written in

priestly Latin, [34] of what took place. After some skirmishes, which at the first were favourable to the

Indians, who took great courage from them, [35] the first encounter of a serious nature occurred on February

24, 1754. Quite naturally, the victory was on the side of the bestarmed battalions, and the Indians lost many

With varying success the war dragged on for several years, after the style of the Gaucho warfare in the River

Plate which was common twenty years ago, or that in Venezuela which obtains today. Alternately each

party carried off the other's horses, drove each other's cattle, or, if they caught a straggler, tied his hands and

cut his throat or lanced him, the party who had lost the man protesting he was 'massacred'a term in use

even today when the party to which one's self belongs sustains reverse. For the first two yearsfor wars in

South America till twenty years ago were to the full as interminable as that of TroyFather Thadeus Ennis

kept his journal, faithfully chronicling all that he saw. Occasionally in a perfunctory way he says his mission

with the revolted Indians was as a priest and physician to the souls and bodies of his flock; but now and then

he sets down the capture of a convoy of some thirty carts, or the cutting off some messenger carrying

despatches from the Generals. In this he sees the hand of God (put forth to help his Jesuits [37]), although he

now and then complains the Indians were remiss in following up any success they had. After the first

encounter, the Indians seem to have employed the immemorial guerilla tactics which so often waste all the

strength of an army which has conquered in the field. Father Cardiel [38] describes the Indian army, quoting

from the writing of a Spanish officer who served against them, as quite contemptible. Their cannon were but

hollow reeds, bound round with hide, which could only be fired two or three times, and carried balls a pound

in weight. [39] Some lances and bows and arrows which they had appeared to him more formidable. Most of

them carried banners with the painted figure of a saint, under whose aegis they deemed themselves secure

from cannonballs. Their trenches were but shallow ditches, with a few deeper holes to shelter in, but which,

as Cardiel observes, served many of them for graves, as they were open to artillery, having been constructed

without 'an ounce of military art'. The officer adds that no sooner had the Indians heard the cannon than they

fled, leaving almost nine hundred on the field and losing onesixth prisoners. [40] Finally, the officer

remarks with disgust that the official chronicler of the affair 'lies from first to last' [41] when he declares that

the Indians could make any resistance against disciplined troops. With varying fortune the campaign dragged

on, until in 1756 the diary of Father Ennis, bad Latinity and all, comes to an abrupt conclusion at the taking

of San Lorenzo, where the stouthearted priest was taken prisoner. His papers fell into unfriendly hands, and

were made use of by Iba�ez, with the context duly distorted in various passages, and served as one of the

most formidable indictments against the Jesuits in the expulsion under Charles III.

Although Thadeus Ennis and other Jesuits accompanied the troops, and no doubt aided much by their advice,

the Indians had as a general one Nicolas �eenguir�, styled in the Gazettes of the time the King of Paraguay.

About this man all kinds of monstrous legends soon sprang up. One little lying book, entitled 'Histoire de

Nicolas I., Roy du Paraguai et Empereur des Mamalus', [42] which bears upon its titlepage 'Saint Paul', [43]

1756, especially excels. In that brief work of but one hundred and seventeen pages, printed on yellowish

paper, and with one of the finest little vignettes of a basket of fruit and flowers upon its titlepage that one

could wish to see, a sort of parody of a Spanish picaresque novel in duodecimo is set forth with circumstance.

Nicolas Roubioni is duly born in 1710, in a small 'bourgade de l'Andalousie' bearing the name of Taratos.

The name carries conviction from the start, and pronounced a la francaise, with the accent equal upon all the

syllables, is quite as Spanish as the most exigent of comic operas could possibly desire. His father, 'ancien

militaire', left him alone to educate himself as he best liked. Arrived at eighteen years of age he runs away to

Seville, and after several adventures in the style of those of Rinconete and Cortadillo, seen through French

spectacles, enters the service of a lady bearing the wellknown Spanish name of Donna Maria della Cupidit�.

Under the unnecessary alias of Medelino, and in the capacity of cook, he becomes the lady's lover as in duty

bound. 'Chasse' from Seville by a jealous brother of his love, he flies for refuge to a 'bourgade' (name not

chronicled) some seven leagues away. He then becomes a muleteer, and at Medina Sidonia kills a man, and,

forced to flee, repairs to Malaga, where he lives peacefully ten years. Finding life dull there, he journeys to

Aragon and joins the Jesuits, and from henceforth his future is assured. After an interval he reappears at

Huesca, and at once falls in love with 'une belle espagnole', Donna Victoria Fortini, whom he courts under

the guise of a gentleman of Seville, returning every night to the convent of the Jesuits to change his clothes.

So great becomes his effrontery that under the style and title of 'Comte de la Emmand�s', he publicly marries

'sa belle', the Jesuits either consenting, or too astounded at the fact to intervene. Things getting hot in Huesca,

he embarks for Buenos Ayres as a missionary, leaving poor Donna de la Victoria 'dans une inqui�tude

mortelle', as she might well have been. Arrived in Buenos Ayres just at the moment of the cession of the

seven Jesuit towns, he sees his opportunity, learns Guaran� in the brief space of six or seven weeks, and joins

the Indians. They naturally, having been trained to look on every foreigner outside the Order of the Jesuits as

an enemy, receive him as their King. Under the title of the 'Son of the Sun and Star of Liberty' he rules them,

looked on as a God. The brief mendacious chronicle leaves him on the throne, just after having joined the

empire of the Mamalucos to that of Paraguay, and promising to give the world more of his history when it

By stories such as those contained in the mendacious little book imprinted at St. Paul, the easyminded

publicthen, as now, always more easily impressed with lies than with the truthwas biassed against the

Jesuits in Paraguay. Father Dobrizhoffer, [44] who knew 'King' Nicolas from his youth up, has left a very

different version of his history, in which no Donna della Cupitid� or de la Victoria even remotely flourishes.

Nicolas �eenguir� was born in the township of La Concepcion, of which in afterlife he rose to be the

mayor. He married an Indian woman, not 'une belle Andalouse', and Dobrizhoffer says a friend of his, one

Father Zierheim, had him whipped publicly for petty theft when a young man. At the time (1753) when, in

company with another Indian, one Jos�, mayor of San Miguel, he headed the Indian revolt, he was a man of

middle age, tall, taciturn and grave, and not illlooking, though marked across the cheek with a disfiguring

scar. At no time was he even a lay brother of the Jesuit Order, as by their rules in Paraguay no Indians were

ever taken either as lay brothers or as priests. So little was the man feared by the authorities that, once the

Indians' resistance was over, Nicolas went to the Spanish camp, was quietly heard, dismissed, and then

continued in his office as the mayor of his native place. The legend sprang from a mistake in Guaran�, to

which perhaps a little malice gave its artful charm. In Guaran� the word 'Rubich�' signifies a chief, whereas

'Nfurabich�' means king. The two, pronounced by one but ill acquainted with the language sound identical.

Nothing was more likely than that the Indians should call their general their chief; had they thought really of

settling upon a king, it is certain that they would have chosen one of the family of some wellknown chief,

and not an Indian merely appointed mayor by the Jesuits. But be that as it may, General �eenguir�, though he

has left some interesting letters, which are preserved in the archives of Simancas, showed no capacity for

generalship. [45] Throughout the course of the campaign he endeavoured to replace his want of skill by tricks

and by intrigues, but of so futile a nature that they were frustrated and rendered useless at once. His first

endeavour was to gain time, when he found himself with seventeen hundred men opposed to Andonaegui,

Governor of Buenos Ayres, who had an army well equipped with guns, of about two thousand men.

�eenguir� wrote to Andonaegui, telling him that the Indians were ready to submit, and then, whilst waiting

for an answer, set about fortifying the position which he held. Warned by a spy, Andonaegui attacked at once,

and drove the Indians from their trenches like a flock of sheep, taking their wooden cannon, lances, and

A glorious victory, and, as Father Ennis says, 'to be expected, and which, had it chanced otherwise, must have

covered the Spaniards and the Portuguese with shame.' In fact, a victory of the same kind as those which

since that time have been most usual when wellarmed European troops have faced halfnaked, illarmed

savages, but which, of course, reflect no credit on the victor, or, at best, just as much credit as a butcher

But even after the victory over the Indians of Nicolas �eenguir� the troubles of the allies were not quite at an

end. The usual dissensions between allies who mutually detest each other soon broke out, and Gomez Freire,

the General of the Portuguese, only prevented a collision with the Spaniards by considerable tact. After a

short campaign of a few months, the allies entered the rebellious towns and took possession of them all, with

the exception of San Lorenzo, which continued to hold out. A month or two served to reduce it, too, and the

whole territory of the seven towns submitted to the power of the joint forces of Portugal and Spain. The

struggle over, �eenguir� was quietly again reinstated mayor of Concepcion, the bruised wooden cannon duly

set up as monuments, the dead left on the plains and the esteros for the chimangos [46] and the caranchos

[47] to gorge upon, and, law's due majesty once more vindicated, the conquerors set about, in 1757, to trace

Most of the seven towns were half deserted, the Indians having fled for refuge to the woods, [48] and the

commission set to work upon its labours in a desert which it itself had made. Out of the fourteen thousand

Indians who had inhabited the seven flourishing towns upon the Uruguay but few remained; yet still the work

of pacification and working at the boundary went on slowly, for from 1753 to 1759 nothing of consequence

was done. In 1760 Ferdinand VI. died, and his son Charles III. succeeded him, and still the boundary

commission worked on hopelessly in Paraguay. The Jesuits, who had worked unceasingly during the last

eight years to annul the treaty handing the seven missions over to the Portuguese, at length, in 1761, obtained

from Charles III. a treaty annulling all that had been done, and providing that the seven towns should remain

They triumphed; but their triumph added another step towards their ruin, for the jealousy which they evoked

by their persistent fight raised up much animosity towards themselves in Spain. How great a share they had in

the resistance of the Indians cannot be known with certainty. Papers preserved in the archives of Simancas

charge them with stirring up the Indians to resist; [49] but they are chiefly from Valdelirios and others, who,

naturally finding resistance, put it down at once to the Jesuits, whom then, as now, it was the fashion to

abuse. The Indians themselves seem to have been perplexed, no doubt encouraged by their priests on one

hand, and on the other seeing the commissary Altamirano, himself a Jesuit, calling upon them to submit. In a

pathetic letter written to the Governor of Buenos Ayres, and dated 'en la estancia de San Luis, Feb. 28 de

1756', Primo Ibarrenda, of San Miguel, says: [50] 'This our writing I send to you that you may tell us finally

what is to be our lot, and that you take a resolution what it is that you shall do. You see how that last year the

father commissary [51] came to this our land to bother us to leave it: to leave our towns and all our territories,

saying it was the will of our lord the King: besides this you yourself sent us a rigorous letter telling us to burn

our towns, destroy the fields, even pull down our church, which is so beautiful (tan lindo), and saying also

that you would kill us. You also say, and therefore we ask you if it is the truth, for if it is, we will all die

before the Holy Sacrament; but spare the church, for it is God's, and even the infidels would not do it any

harm.' They go on to say they have always been obedient subjects of the King, and that it is impossible that

his wish could be to injure themin fact, the letter of innocent men, half civilized, and thinking justice,

mercy, and rightdoing were to be found with Governors and Kings. Had many of the Jesuits chosen to take

the field, their knowledge of the country and the vast influence that they had upon the Indians would have

made the campaign perilous enough even for the united military power of Portugal and Spain. As it was, the

miserable war dragged on for eight long years, and for result ruined seven missions where before the Indians

lived happily. Then, when the fields were desolate, the villages deserted, and the Indian population half

dispersed, statesmen in Spain and Portugal saw fit to change their minds, to annul the treaty, and to pass a

[3] As that of Philip V., from the palace of Buen Retiro, December 28, 1743, and his two letters to the Jesuits

of Paraguay. Also the previous edict obtained by Montoya from Philip II., and by the various additions on the

[4] Since the discovery of America the Spaniards and the Portuguese had been in constant rivalry throughout

the southeastern portion. Their frontier, between what are now Brazil and Argentina, had never been

defined. In 1494 King John II. of Castile concluded a treaty signed at Tordesillas with the King of Portugal,

placing the dividingline between the countries two hundred leagues more to the westward than that of the

famous Bull of Pope Alexander VI. (May 4, 1493), which placed it at one hundred leagues west of Cape

Verd, cutting the world in two from the Arctic to the Antarctic Pole. From the signing of the treaty of

Tordesillas trouble began in South America between the Powers, as by that treaty a portion of Brazil came

[5] These were the towns of San Angel, San Nicolas, San Luis, San Lorenzo, San Miguel, San Juan, and San

[6] According to the 1913 edition of the Catholic Encyclopedia (in the article titled "Reductions of

Paraguay") this treaty, signed in secret on 15 January 1750, was a deliberate assault on the Jesuit Order by the

Ministers of Spain and Portugal, the latter of whom, Pombal, is said to have been responsible also for the

false and libelous 'Histoire de Nicolas I., Roy du Paraguai et Empereur des Mamalus' (referred to in this

chapter) which was distributed throughout Europe as another attack on the Jesuits. As anyone familiar with

the situation could see that the Indians would not be happy about the treaty's requirement to abandon their

[7] Most of the dates of the events subsequent to the cession of the seven reductions on the Uruguay are taken

from 'La Causa Jesuitica de Portugal' (Madrid, 1768), written by Iba�ez, a great enemy of the Jesuits. In it is

also an account of the events in Paraguay between 1750 and 1756, called 'Relacion de la Guerra que

sustentaron los Jesuitas contra las tropas Espa�olas y Portuguesas en el Uruguay y Paran�/'. No proof has

ever been brought forward that the Jesuits as a body ever incited the revolt of the Indians, though

undoubtedly Father Tadeo Ennis, a hotheaded priest, stirred up his own particular reduction to resist. It does

not seem likely that the Jesuits could have thought it possible to wage a successful war against Spain and

Portugal. The dates taken from Iba�ez tally with original letters from the Marques de Valdelirios, the Spanish

boundary commissioner, and others, which are preserved in the Spanish national archives at Simancas.

[8] Vide 'Exc. por los cartas que recibi con los avisos, y llegada del P. Altamirano, entiendo acabar� de

persuadirse a que los Padres de la Campa�ia son los sublevados, sino los quitan de las aldeas sus Santos

Padres (como ellos los llaman) no experimentar�n mas que rebeliones insolencias y desprecios. . . .' Letter

[9] The Marques de Valdelirios, writing to Don Jos� de Carvajal from Monte Video, June 28, 1752

(Simancas, Legajo 7,447), says: 'Estoy cierto de que los padres estan ya en la persuasion de que el tratado no

se ha de dejar de executar.' This being so, it was evident that the Marquis, at the date of writing, was of

opinion that the Jesuits were not going to oppose the execution of the treaty, as he goes on to say: 'Y es

credible que con este desenga�o trabajan seriamente en la mudanza de sus pueblos.'

[10] The instructions were prepared in 1768 by Bucareli for the guidance of Don Juan Joseph de Vertiz, his

interim successor in the government of the River Plate, and were delivered to him in 1770 when Bucareli

returned to Spain. They are printed by Brabo in his 'Coleccion de Documentos relativos � la Expulsion de los

[12] This refers to the same subject, and prohibits any Spaniard from settling in an Indian town in any part of

[13] Dean Funes, 'Ensayo de la Historia Civil del Paraguay', etc., tome iii., p. 45.

[14] Dean Funes says 'una difusa memoria'; but, then, even though friendly, churchmen and cats rarely forego

[15] Though Iba�ez ('Republica Jesuitica', tome i., cap. i.) says: 'This treaty caused entire satisfaction to all

the world except the English, who feared their commerce would suffer by it (i.e., by the closing of the

Colonia del Sacramento as an entry for smuggled goods), and the Jesuits.' Raynal, also an exJesuit, but a

man of far higher character than Iba�ez, says (tome iii., lib. 97): 'This treaty met censure on both sides, the

ministers in Lisbon themselves alleging that it was a false policy to sacrifice the Colonia del Sacramento, the

clandestine commerce of which amounted to two millions of dollars a year . . . for possessions whose

advantages were uncertain and position remote. The outcries were even stronger in Madrid. There they

imagined that the Portuguese would soon rule all along the Uruguay . . . and from thence penetrate up the

[16] Quoting the Pope who advised St. Augustine on his first mission visit to England, to convert the natives

[18] From a letter preserved at Simancas (Legajo 7,447), written by P. Diego Palacios to P. Luiz de

Altamirano, dated San Miguel, June 20, 1752, it appears that there were in the territory of the seven towns

[21] 'Stroner' may have been 'Stoner', in which case he must have been an Englishman. There were few

English names amongst the Paraguayan Jesuits, if one except Juan Bruno de Yorca (John Brown of York),

Padre Esmid (Smith), the supposititious 'Stoner', and the doubtful Taddeo Ennis, who, though said to be a

[22] Dean Funes, 'Ensayo de la Historia Civil de Paraguay', etc., book v., p. 52.

[23] They also said, in a memorial presented to the Marquis of Valdelirios by the Provincial Barreda,

preserved at Simancas (Legajo 7,447), 'That they had voluntarily made themselves vassals of the King of

Spaindespues de Christianarnos, nos hizimos voluntariamente vasallos de nuestro Catholico Rey de

Espa�a para que amparandonos con su poder fomentase nuestra devota Christiandad.' It was not likely,

therefore, that they would voluntarily become subject to the Portuguese, their most bitter persecutors.

[24] Jos� Barreda, the Father Provincial of the missions, in a curious letter under date of August 2nd, 1753,

tells the Marquis of Valdelirios that he fears not only that the 30,000 Indians resident in the seven towns may

rebel, but that they may be joined by the Indians of the other reductions, and that it is possible they may all

apostatize and return to the woods. Brabo, in the notes to his 'Atlas de Cartas Geograficas de los Paises de la

America Meridianal' (Madrid, 1872), gives a synopsis of this letter, which formed part of his collection, and

contained the greatest quantity of interesting papers on the Jesuits in Paraguay and Bolivia which has ever

been brought together. In 1872, after publishing his 'Atlas', his 'Coleccion de Documentos', and his

'Inventarios', he presented his papers (more than 30,000 in number) to the Archivo Historico Nacional of

Madrid. There they remain, and form a rich mine for dogged scholars who have not passed their youth on

[26] Ibid.: 'Que toda la polvora que tengan los curas y misioneros se queme o se inutilize y pierda hechandola

[27] In another letter, also preserved at Simancas, and dated at Yapey�, he complains bitterly of his own

suffering on the journey: 'Me moli tanto con el traqueo violento del carreton que no he podido volver sobre

mi.' The roads to the missions seem to have been as bad as those which produced the historical exclamation,

'O dura tellus Hispani�!' It is certainly the case that Iba�ez, in his 'Republica Jesuitica' (Madrid, 1768), gives

a very different version of the doings of Altamirano; for he says that Rafael de Cordoba, Altamirano's

secretary, 'embarked in a schooner called La Real a great quantity of guns and lead for balls, packing them all

in boxes, which, he said, were full of objects of a pious nature. . . . This,' says Iba�ez, 'was told me by the

master of the schooner Jos� el Ingles, a man worthy of credence.' This is pleasing to one's national pride, but,

still, one seems to want a little better authority even than that of 'Bardolph, the Englishman'.

[29] In a most curious letter (preserved at Simancas, Legajo 7,447), the mayor and council of the reduction of

San Juan write to Altamirano upbraiding him with being their enemy, and tell him that 'St. Michael sent by

God showed their poor grandfathers (sus pobres abuelos) where to plant a cross, and afterwards to march due

south from the cross and they would find a holy father of the Company.' This, of course, turned out as the

saint had foretold, and after a long day's march they encountered the Jesuit and became Christians.

[30] This account seems to have been lost, and a careful search has not disinterred it from the Maelstrom of

Simancas, that prisonhouse of so many documents, without whose aid so much of Spanish history cannot be

[31] His 'Efemerides', or Journal, printed and mutilated by Iba�ez in his 'Republica de Paraguay', gives the

best account of the brief 'war' which has come down to us; it is supplemented by the 'Declaracion de la

Verdad' of Father Cardiel, which deals with the misstatements of Iba�ez and others against the Jesuits. In

regard to his own share in the war, Padre Ennis says: 'Atque in exercitas curatorem, spiritualem medicum

[33] Dean Funes, 'Ensayo de la Historia Civil del Paraguay', Buenos Ayres, etc., book v., cap. iv., p. 58.

[34] Luckily Iba�ez ('Republica Jesuitica de Paraguay') has not corrected the many faults of spelling and

Latinity into which Padre Ennis fell. Those, though left in from malice, as Iba�ez was a bitter enemy of the

Jesuits, serve to present the man in his habit as he wrote. However, Iba�ez has so much mutilated the text of

[35] 'Hoc itaque nuncio l�ti altero ac incensi . . . Sacramento expiationis et pane fortim roborati' (Ennis,

[36] Cardiel, in his 'Declaracion de la Verdad', p. 426, says: 'Lo mismo es 28,000 mil Indios que igual

[37] 'Nec tamen resipiscebat et Divinam Nemesim quamquam clare experiebatur pro caus� Societatis.'

[39] In fact, they much resembled those 'crakys of warre' which, with the 'tymmeris for helmys', Barbour, in

the 'Bruce', takes notice of as the two noteworthy events of a battle that he chronicles: 'Twa noweltyis that

day thai saw, That forouth in Scotland had bene nane. Tymmeris for helmys war the tane, That thaim thoucht

thane off gret bewte And alsua wondyr for to se. The tothyr, crakys war, off wer, That thai befor herd neuir

[42] The Mamalucos, or Paulistas, were, of course, the bitterest enemies of everything Paraguayan, so that a

[43] If this assumes to be Sao Paulo de Piritinanga in Brazil, it is not unlikely one of the few books published

there in the eighteenth century, if not the only one. Happy is the city of one book, especially when that work

has nothing of a theological character in it, even though it lies from 'la cruz a la fecha'.

[45] The only man the Indians produced who showed any aptitude as a leader was a chief called Sepe

[47] Polyhorus tharus. In relation to the word 'tharus', which figures as a sort of scientific (or doggerel)

cognomen to this bird, Mr. W. H. Hudson once pointed out to me that, like some other 'scientific facts', it

originated in a mistake. The Pampa Indian name of the bird is 'trar�'. Molina (Don Juan Ignacio), in his

'History of Chile', happened to spell the word 'thar�', instead of 'trar�', and then proceeded to make a

[48] Cardiel, 'Declaracion de la Verdad', p. 430: '. . . llego alli despues de la fuga y desamparo de los pueblos

. . . saco a los dos Padres que estaban muy afligidos por la soledad y alboroto.'

[49] In a letter (Archivo de Simancas, Legajo 7,378, folio 128), Valdelirios, writing to the governor of

Buenos Ayres, Don Jos� de Caravajal y Lancastre, says: 'Inagotables son los recursos de los Padres para que

se dilate y no se ratifique el tratado. . . .' But he gives no proof except that they had sent petitions to the

[50] The letter was written originally in Guaran�, and a certified translation of it exists at Simancas, Legajo

Position of the Jesuits in 1761 Decree for their expulsion sent from Spain Bucareli sent to suppress the

colleges and drive out the Jesuits They submit without resistance After two hundred years they are

expelled from Paraguay The country under the new rule The system of government practically

'NO STORM is so insidious' (said St. Ignatius) 'as a perfect calm, and no enemy so dangerous as the absence

This dangerous state of calm without an apparent enemy in sight was the position of the Jesuits in Paraguay

in 1761. By desperate efforts and intrigues in Spain they had kept their thirty missions from being mutilated;

their influence amongst the Indians had never been more absolute. The governors of Buenos Ayres and of

Paraguay had tried a fall with them, and the honours of the struggle were with the Jesuits. They had

succeeded in getting put into force the clauses of the 'Laws of the Indies', which kept Spaniards out of the

Indian settlements. Even those sent against them had been forced to testify to their utility [1] in Paraguay. But

throughout Spain and her enormous empire in America and in the East perpetual hostility between the Jesuits

and the regular clergy had been going on for years. In every portion of America the Jesuits were unpopular,

the excuse alleged being their wealth and power; [2] but the real reason was their attitude on slavery. After

repeated grumblings of distant thunder, at length the storm broke, and the decree for the expulsion of the

Jesuits in Spain and her dominions was signed, and the order sent to Bucareli, Governor of Buenos Ayres, in

June of 1767, to put it into force in Paraguay. The reasons which induced King Charles III. to expel the

Jesuits, mysterious as they were, and locked up a dead secret in the royal breast, [3] may or may not have

been sufficient in Spain, but could in no respect have held good for Paraguay, where there existed little scope

for court intrigue, and where the Jesuits were far removed from their fellow Spanish subjects, and occupied

entirely with their mission work. Many and various have been the explanations which historians have set

forth for this decree. Certain it is in Spain this Order had attained to considerable power, and that in Rome the

Some have accounted for the act of Charles III. as being but revenge for the tumult of Aranjuez under the

ministry of Esquilace, [4] arguing that the Jesuits were in fact the authors of it, and that it was but the

precursor of a plot to dethrone the King and place his brother Don Luis upon the throne, as being not so

liberal in his ideas. Others, again, have stated [5] that the Jesuits set about a calumny that Charles III. was not

the Queen's son by her husband, but by a lover whom they said she had. The only reason which seems

feasible is that the King was worked on by the fear that the Order had risen to too much power, and that if he

did not at once take steps the monarchy would be rendered but a mere appendage of the General of the

Whether it is sound policy of any government to expel a race, or sect, or order from its domains, no matter

what the immediate exigencies of the times seem to require, is a moot point. The expulsions of the Jews,

Moriscos, and Huguenots, and the dissolution of the monasteries in the times of that true Protestant Henry

VIII. of ever pious memory, do not exactly seem to have had the effect upon the countries where they took

place that was at first expected by their instigators. Expelled by Charles III., the Jesuits today in Spain have

reacquired much of their influence. So that it seems that persecution, to be effectual, must not stop on this

side of extermination, and this our Lord Protector Cromwell understood full well.

The Viceroy Bucareli [7] to whom the task of the expulsion of the Order in the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres

and of Paraguay was entrusted, was no ordinary man. [8] Appointed Viceroy of Buenos Ayres after a

distinguished career of public service, he found himself, almost without warning, and without any adequate

forces at his command, obliged to execute by far the most important and farreaching task that had ever

fallen to the lot of any Spanish Governor in America to carry out. But as his services had not been chiefly in

America, he held the idea which at the time was generally received in Europe, that the Jesuits possessed great

wealth, had bodies of trained troops, and so would resist all efforts at expulsion to the death.

Full of these visions, says Dean Funes, [9] he considered the order, which was transmitted to him from Spain,

as involving serious military risk, and evidently seems to have looked on every Jesuit village as a strong

place of arms. July 22, 1767, was the day he chose, keeping his design a secret, and preparing to strike in

Corrientes, Cordoba, Monte Video, and Santa F�, on the same day, or rather night, for the terror of the Jesuits

On July 2 two ships arrived in Buenos Ayres bringing the news that the decree had been put in force in Spain

on April 2 with success. As all the crew of both the ships knew what had happened in Spain, concealment of

his plan became no longer possible. Thus, had the Jesuits possessed either the wish or the means to make an

Nothing was further from their minds, though they had complete dominion over a territory as large as France,

and which contained a population of over one hundred and fifty thousand souls. [10] For arms, they had as

chief defence some 'very long English guns, with rests if they wished to use them, which were not very

heavy, and had a tolerable range.' [11] These were the preparations that the Jesuits (who, not in Paraguay

alone, but throughout all the American dominions of the Spanish crown, ruled over territories stretching from

California to Cape Horn) [12] had made, and they were found alone in the missions of Paraguay, where, by a

special permission of the Kings of Spain, arms were allowed for defence against the Portuguese.

Bucareli, who seems to have been a timid but honest and upright man, made his first experiment upon the

Jesuits of Buenos Ayres, Cordoba, and Santa F�. The colleges in all these places were suppressed on the same

night, and without the least resistance from their occupants. He who suppresses a religious Order, takes a

town or country, or, in fact, puts into operation any of the forces of the law or military power, always expects,

no matter how exalted be his motives at the start, to recoup himself from the treasure of the conquered. V�

victis, together with the vestments of the church, the plainsong, and the saints, came as a pagan heritage to the

new faith, and has been held as canon law since Constantine looked at the sky and thought he saw a cross.

Great must have been the disgust of the Governor to find the spoil so paltry, and not to have the satisfaction

even of saying that the Jesuits had hidden all their gold, as, his own measures having been taken secretly,

they had no knowledge of what was in the wind. In the college of Cordoba, esteemed to be a mine of wealth,

was found only nine thousand dollars, [13] which sum Ferando Fabro, the commissioner sent by Bucareli to

But if the college of Cordoba [14] proved a miserable prey, there still remained the Jesuit missions on the

Uruguay and Paran�, with all the riches of their fertile territory, and the enormous wealth which every

Spaniard firmly believed the Jesuits had acquired. None of the Jesuits, either in Buenos Ayres, Cordoba,

Santa F�, Corrientes, or Monte Video having made the least resistance, but having opened wide their doors to

the soldiers, who in all the towns on the same day at two o'clock in the morning came to signify their

expulsion to them, it was only natural to think that the same conduct would be observed in Paraguay. But

Governors and Governments never seem in the least accessible to commonsense. Almost a year had passed

before he plucked up courage for his dangerous task. [15] He set about it with more preparation than either

Cortez or Pizarro made for the conquest of Mexico or of Peru. Having embarked for Spain in the frigate La

Esmeralda one hundred and fifty Jesuits from the towns of Cordoba, Buenos Ayres, Monte Video, and Santa

F�, he prepared to march upon the missions, when a suspicion of resistance caused him to take precautions

which the result proved quite ridiculous. He sent two hundred of the best of the militia of Asuncion to occupy

the fords upon the Tebicuari, [16] and a body of equal strength to occupy the port of San Miguel. All these

measures being taken for his safety, the conqueror embarked upon May 24, taking with him three companies

of grenadiers and sixty dragoons. He disembarked at the town of Salto on the Uruguay, and from thence

despatched Captain Don Juan Francisco de la Riva Herrera to occupy the towns upon the Paran�. Don

Francisco de Zabala was sent to seize six of the towns upon the Uruguay. Bucareli himself, with several

hundred men, marched upon Yapey�, [17] the southernmost of all the mission towns. The Jesuits, however,

gave no trouble to any of the troops, and even stopped the Governor from gathering any laurels, however

As he advanced from town to town, the priests, on his arrival at each place, although living in the midst of

Indians, some of whom were armed, and many of whom had served the King of Spain in various wars, and all

of whom looked on the Jesuits almost as gods, came out and peacefully gave up the keys of all their houses,

and submitted quietly to be made prisoners and be carried off in chains from the territories which they and

their order had civilized and ruled over almost two hundred years. Seventyeight Jesuits and their provincials

were sent prisoners to Buenos Ayres, and their places all filled up with other priests taken from different

Orders, and none of whom had any experience in missionwork. As Dean Funes tartly writes, the miracle

that Bucareli wished, but scarcely dared to hope for, had taken place. The Jesuits, in Paraguay, at least, by

their conduct in their last public act, most amply vindicated their loyalty to the Spanish crown. Nothing

would have been easier, depleted as the viceroyalty was at the time of troops, [18] than to have defied the

forces which Bucareli had at his disposal, and to have set up a Jesuit State, which would have taxed the

utmost resources of the Spanish crown to overcome. No doubt the very facility with which Bucareli carried

out his plans confirmed him in his own mind of their expediency, for men in general are prone to think that

right which they accomplish with success. However, be that as it may, he returned in triumph to Buenos

Ayres on September 16, having expended in his expedition less than four months. So in a quarter of a year

the Jesuits, after more than two hundred years of rule, were all expelled from Paraguay.

They made no fight, nor offered any resistance, letting themselves be taken as a butcher takes a sheep, and

that surrounded as they were by a population of upwards of one hundred and fifty thousand souls, cut off by

countless leagues from the outside world, defended on three sides by virgin forests and by marshes hardly

passable to European troops. One word from the Provincial would have set the missions in a blaze. A word

would have brought clouds of horsemenbadly armed, 'tis true, but knowing every foot of marsh and forest,

all the deepbeaten tracks which wind in the red earth across the lonely plains, the passes of the rivers,

springs, natural fastnesses, and having the varied knowledge of a country which of old made Border

horsemen and Northumbrian prickers formidable upon the Scottish marchesinto the field.

The dogged Paraguayan Indians, ancestors of the infantry which, under Lopez, [19] died so bravely under the

fire of the Brazilian guns, would, in their red cloaks and scanty linen clothes, have marched from capilla [20]

and from mission against the enemies of the 'fatherpriests'. Seventyeight Jesuits were marched off to

Buenos Ayres, and then shipped off to Europe [21] to join their fellows, who had been brought together by

the ministers of the most liberal King who ever filled the Spanish throne from every quarter of the world.

Having expelled the Jesuits, Bucareli was bound by the exigencies of his position to calumniate them.

Perhaps, as an official, hidebound in his belief in the inalterable right of Governments to commit injustices,

he believed all that he wrote. For the welfare of humanity, one could hope he knew all that he wrote was

false. What hope is there left for mankind as long as addleheaded, honest men see naught but justice in

whatever order they receive? Better a thousand times a rogue who knows he is a rogue than a good,

But, still, he had to justify himself either upon his own account or for the benefit of that posterity to conciliate

which so many public men have paltered with the truth. So his first care was to extract a letter from thirty

Indians whom he chose to dignify with the title of the mayors of the thirty towns, first having, as he says

himself in a letter to the Conde de Aranda, the minister of Charles III., dressed them in the Spanish fashion,

and treated them in such a way that they might know how much their lot had been improved. [22] The letter,

written originally in Guaran�, [23] bears upon every line of it the dictation of the Governor. After a fine

paragraph of salutations, it goes on to give the King many and repeated thanks ('muchas y repetidas gracias')

for having sent his Excellency CaptainGeneral Don Francisco Bucareli, 'who has fulfilled, for the love of

God and for the love of your Majesty, all the just orders which your Majesty laid to his charge, aiding our

poverty, and clothing us like gentlemen.' Most people, even the heathen, like those who help their poverty

and clothe them in the garb of gentlemen. It had not occurred to the poor Indians that the fine clothes might

turn out liveries. The mayors all sign their Indian names, which seems to give the lie to the accusation that the

Jesuits kept them ignorant. The letter, dated Buenos Ayres, March 10, 1768, seems to show that the Indians,

be they who they might have been, were not free agents at the time they wrote. The Indians' letter duly

despatched, the Governor indited a report, in which he fairly and with circumstance reiterates all the old

charges against the Jesuits in Paraguay which the inventive brain of Cardenas had first conceived; but to them

he adds several little touches of his own, which show he had some observation and an imaginative mind.

Amongst his numerous letters to Aranda and to the King, one dated Buenos Ayres, October 14, 1768, [24]

contains the fullest account of his proceedings in the missions and of his views (or of what he thought to be

his views) about the work in which he was engaged. Time was of small account in 1768 either in Paraguay or

in Madrid, so Bucareli relates with some prolixity all that he did, with comments, movements of troops,

regrettable occurrencesas when his soldiers let themselves be surprised and lost their horsesand now

and then scraps of morality and theology, which shows quite plainly that the art of writing maundering

despatches is not so new as optimists may have supposed. Quite in the manner of a modern special

correspondent, he sets down all that he suffered from the weather; that it rained incessantly, and, marvellous

to tell, that after rain the rivers rose, and gave him difficulty to cross. The roads were bad, provisions scarce

and dear, and now and then wild Indians 'massacred' an outpost of his men, whilst his brave fellows, when

God willed it, occasionally 'chastised' the infidel, and by the grace of Heaven slew no small number of them.

Still, in the monstrous farrago of words, extending to some sixteen pages of close print, he lets us see he was

a man of some capacity, but leaves it doubtful whether he really thought he was engaged upon a noble work,

or if he wrote ironically, or if his only object was to satisfy his conscience and his King. But making much of

little difficulties is but to be expected from a leader of an expedition or from a General in the field. Without it,

how could they justify their existence, or prove to the world at large that they were needed, or but more

When the land troubles were got over, and Bucareli, having arrived at Yapey�, embarked upon the river, the

very winds proved contrary, so that it took him many days to arrive at Candelaria, which port he reached

upon August 27, 1768. But before quitting Yapey� the Governor made a solemn feast, riding himself before

his grenadiers, whose caps, he says, caused much amazement, the Indians never having seen such headgear in

their lives. The difficulties of his journey over, the Jesuits dispossessed and sent downstream to be remitted

home, Bucareli in his letter next deals with questions of religion, about which he shows himself as well

informed as all the Spanish conquerors seem to have been in the New World. If for the dogma of the faith he

was a bar of iron, for 'cold morality', as Scottish preachers of the perfervid type used to refer to it, he was

most keen. The Indians' clothes, especially the graceful tupoi worn by the women, shocked him exceedingly.

It was impossible to touch upon it without an outrage upon modesty. [26] Masculine virtue is a most

precarious thing, but little, if at all, more stable than its female counterpart; therefore perhaps the Governor

was right not to expose his soldiers to temptation, so he did well, as he informs us, in serving out clothes

which obscured their charms, or perhaps hid them quite from view. 'Such tyrannies,' [27] says the modest

Governor, 'occasioned many offences against God, and frequent illnesses and epidemics.' The sentence is a

little doubtful in its meaning, for if a scantiness of women's dress occasioned illnesses and epidemics

amongst the population of a town, Belgravia and Mayfair should surely be the most unhealthy spots on earth;

though even there, I verily believe, no more offences against God occur than amongst the Moors, whose

As in duty bound, Bucareli kept for the end of his despatch a rehash of all the old charges made against the

Jesuits. They kept the Indians in slavery, would never let them learn Spanish, and were themselves

inordinately rich. The first two accusations Father Jos� Cardiel, in his 'Declaracion de la Verdad', abundantly

disproves. [28] The last the Governor disproves himself; for had he found much treasure he most assuredly

would have made haste to send it to the King. What he did find, a reference later to Brabo's inventories will

show, and the same source discloses all the wealth the richest Order in the world, according to their enemies,

took with them in their involuntary journey back to Spain. All being finished in the missions and the Jesuits

expelled, Bucareli found himself obliged to institute some system for the government of the Indian

population, which he had deprived both of its spiritual and of its temporal guides.

The Jesuits' government having been so bad, according to his own despatch, the Indians having been kept in

such a miserable state, their education having been so neglected, and, above all, their women having been

dressed in such light attire that Bucareli could not with modesty even describe their dress, it might have

seemed but natural that he should have evolved some system of government differing in all respects from that

he had destroyed. So far from that, in his instructions to his interim successor, dated at Candelaria, [29]

August 23, 1768, he practically followed slavishly all the policy which the Jesuits had pursued. He ordered

Captains Riva Herrera and Bruno de Zavala, to whom the arrangements were committed, to see that the

Indians were instructed 'in the true knowledge of our holy faith', a work which the Jesuits, whatever might be

their faults, had not neglected to insure. After some platitudes as to the vivifying effects of free and open

trade, and an injunction to his captains to take care the Indian girls were decorously and virtuously dressed,

he launched into a sermon about honest work, which, as he said, would make the Indians rich, happy, and

virtuous, and alone could ever make a kingdom prosper; in fact, he used almost precisely similar language to

that today used by a European Governor in Africa when about to make a people slaves. On the whole,

however, his instructions were wise and liberal, and had they been carried out in the same spirit, and with

fidelity, the Indians might have long continued in the same halfArcadian, halfChristian state in which the

Jesuits left them, and to which it seems they could attain, but not go farther without exposure to that vivifying

commerce without which nations cannot prosper, but with which the greater portion of their citizens must

The instructions given, he left the missions never to return, leaving behind him the reputation of an honest

man, having made, as it would appear, no money during his sojourn in their territories. On October 20, 1768,

he wrote from Buenos Ayres to Aranda, telling him that his work was done, and asking him as a particular

favour to implore the King to give him some employment 'out of America, and particularly not under either

the secretaryship or the Council of the Indies.' [30] Thus it appears that either the work in which he had been

engaged was uncongenial to him, or he mistrusted the future and the Indians when the Jesuits' sheltering

hands had been withdrawn, and thought the King might blame him for what was sure to come. One passage

in his letter of instructions shows that the antique, but still current, fashion of going to any length to obtain a

country in which are situated even supposititious goldmines had its influence even with such an honest man

as Bucareli was. He specially enjoins upon the officials left in charge 'to find out from what quarter the

Indians of those towns extract those pieces of the precious metals which they sometimes bring to their

priests.' So that the fable of the false mines started by Cardenas, although a thousand times disproved, still

lingered in the minds of those who could not understand what motive except that of growing rich could cause

the Jesuits to bury themselves in the recesses of the Paraguayan woods. The release from things American

and under the jurisdiction of the Council of the Indies did not come to Bucareli for almost two more years,

during which time he struggled manfully with the affairs of the Jesuit missions, repelled the Chaco Indians on

one side, and on the other implored for troops to defend the island of Chiloe against the heretic English, who

at that time appear to have been meditating the advancement of their empire in the extremest south. One

curious letter was reserved for Bucareli to indite before he quitted Buenos Ayres for the last time. On January

15, 1770, he sent a long declaration signed by the celebrated Nicolas �eenguir� and other Indians, giving an

account of the part played by him in the abortive resistance which he made against the cession of the seven

towns. This is the last time that Nicolas, the 'King' of Paraguay and 'Emperor of the Mamelucos', appears in

any document as far as I can find. His name at one time was well known in Paraguay, the River Plate and

Spain, and served to father many lies upon; and at the last, the Jesuits gone, he seems to have turned against

them, and said all that was required by Bucareli to get up his case. It appears from Bucareli's letter that the

family of the �eenguir� had been well known in the missions from the time of Cardenas. In 1770 [31] we

find him shorn of his kingly and imperial dignities, the mayor of Concepcion in Paraguay, tall, taciturn, with

long, lank hair, and much respected by his brother Indians, who held his stirrup for him when he got upon his

horse. To find him in the humour to give tongue about the Jesuits was a trumpcard in Bucareli's hand, for if

it could be proved that in 1750 they had resisted the forces of the crown of Spain, the public, always anxious

to believe a lie, would naturally applaud the action of the King in their expulsion from his territories. Nicolas,

who seems to have been but a poor creature at the best, testified that everything which he had done as

General of the Indians was by the order of Fathers Limp and Ennis, and that he was a poor Indian who did but

that which he was told. He finished up his testimony with thanks to the good King for having taken him out

of the power of the Jesuits, and kept him in his post of mayor at Concepcion. In fact, all was the same to him

Upon August 14, 1778, Bucareli sailed for Spain, leaving Don Juan Jos� Vertiz as his successor in the

viceroyalty of the provinces of the River Plate. The missions were all placed under the care of friars of the

begging Orders, chiefly Franciscans, and the system of the Jesuit government was left unchanged. In 1771,

writing from San Lorenzo (el Escorial) in Spain, Bucareli, who seemed fated never to escape from the affairs

of Paraguay, sends a long constitution for the thirty towns which follows all the Jesuits' rules of government

to the last tittle of their policy. Brabo has preserved the document, which runs to fortyseven pages of close

print in its entirety. A carefully thoughtout and wellconceived digest of a constitution it most certainly is,

and yet it follows to the most minute particular the policy the Jesuits laid down.

Dean Funes [33] seemed to see that the flattering of Nicolas �eenguir� and the other Indian chiefs was an

entire affair of artifice, and that it was but a mere crowning of the victims who were destined to be sacrificed.

It may be that the constitution made by Bucareli at the Escorial was similarly but a blind to keep the Indians

quiet till the Government had time to exploit them at its ease. Still, Bucareli in all his actions seems to have

been an honest man; one of those honest, narrowminded men who have sown more misery in the world than

all the rogues and scoundrels since the flood. Be all that as it may, his constitution in a thousand ways

recalled the Jesuits' polity in their days of rule. In a former chapter [34] I have pointed out a curious instance

in which this constitution traverses entirely statements made by the Jesuits' enemies that their exclusive

policy was for their own ends, and not, as they alleged, for the protection of the Indians. But there are other

instances quite as remarkable which show that the Jesuits not only had grasped perfectly what the best course

of treatment was for their subjects, but that the official mind of Bucareli, trained as he was, so to speak, in the

strictest sect of Pharisees, and prejudiced against the Jesuits in every way, yet discerned clearly as an honest

man that the plan they had laid down was the most suitable for future rulers to pursue.

At the time of forming his constitution he had been gone but scarce a year from Buenos Ayres, and yet he

writes [35] complaining bitterly of what was happening in the missions of Paraguay. He points out that all his

trouble will have been in vain 'if the Governor and his lieutenants are not stimulated to address themselves to

the service of God and of the King, with that zeal which everyone should impart to his duty.' Then, after a

puff preliminary of the beauty of freedom, human and Divine, he sets forth how the Indians are in future to be

ruled. First, as in duty bound, he points out that anything savouring of communism is against the laws of

Heaven and of man; that the Indians in their semicommunism were really slaves, the industrious working

for the idle, and so forth; that their clothes were scanty; that they were not allowed to freely mix with

Spaniards, and were kept a race apart. Then like a prudent statesman having made his apologia 'pro existentia

sua', and blown off much virtuous steam, he comes to business, and business, as we know, is the great soberer

After the article to which I have referred in Chapter IX. comes this most curious paragraph, taken in

connection with the inalienable right which, according to himself, the Indians had of free communication

with the outer world: [36] 'And because I am informed that many Indians who have been absent in the army

of the Portuguese, and have resided for lengthened periods in Rio Pardo, Viamont and other parts, have

returned to their towns, you will take care that all these with their families shall be removed to those (towns)

either in the interior or distant from those frontiers, as it is not convenient that they should remain on them

(the frontiers) or close to them; and thus you will proceed successively with the Indians who return, without

leaving one, in order to avoid any chance of communication, which might be most prejudicial.' Surely a satire

on his own abuse of the Jesuits for keeping the Indians mewed up from intercourse with the outside world. It

may be that he had perceived the Indians were not fit to hold their own; indeed, it is certain he had done so,

for on p. 326 he writes, 'It is not convenient to leave them (the Indians) entire liberty, [37] for it would be in

the extreme fatal and prejudicial to their interests, because the astuteness and sagacity of the Spaniards would

triumph easily over their rusticity.' 'Sagacity' is an ingenious euphuism, and might well be used with good

effect in the like circumstances, when occasion serves, today. But as no single article of any document set

forth by any Government can be straightforward and single in its purpose, and as all laws are made with an

eye upon some party presently in power, after the paragraph just quoted, on the next page occurs the

following sentence under the head of 'Commerce with the Spaniards is to be free'. [38] 'It is laid down that

between the Indians and the Spaniards commerce should be free, in order that mutual dealings should unite

them in friendship.' Therefore to the ordinary mind it is impossible to make out what really was intended, and

whether commerce was to be free or not. Those little differences apart, the constitution ran entirely upon

Jesuit lines. That semicommunism which was so prejudicial during the Jesuits' rule was formally

reorganized in chapter iv. of the constitution (p. 343) the instant that their power was placed in other hands.

Even the prohibition to the Spaniards to enter the Jesuit towns, and reside there, was formally kept up in

chapter iii., with the sole alteration that for three months of the year they might reside amongst the Indians on

certain welldefined conditions most prolixly set forth. So that it will be seen that, if the Jesuits did ill, as

usual, any ill they did was carefully perpetuated by their successors, and, quite as naturally, all that they

[1] Don Pedro Cevallos, Governor of Buenos Ayres, who was in Paraguay in 1755, sent there to fight the

troops of King Nicolas, found, as he himself says, 'no King, and no troops, but a few halfarmed Indians.'

[2] The figures in Chapter VII. serve to show that in Paraguay, at least, they were not exactly millionaires. In

Mexico, Palafox, the saintly Bishop of Puebla, had set about all kinds of stories as to their riches, but

Geronimo Terenichi, an ecclesiastic sent to Mexico to examine into the question of the Jesuits and their

wealth, after a year of residence, expressly says 'they were very poor, and laden with debt' ('eran muy pobres

y estaban cargados de deudas'): 'Coleccion de los articulos de la Esperanza, sobre la Historia del Reinado de

[3] They were expressly proclaimed to be 'ocultas y reservadas'. Carlos III., in defence of his 'occult' and

'reserved' reasons, said, 'mis razones, solo Dios y yo debemos conocerlas' ('Reinado de Carlos III.', vol. iii., p.

120. Ferrer del Rio, Madrid, 1856). No doubt Carlos III. satisfied his conscience with this dictum, but it is

permissible to doubt whether the power alluded to in such a cousinlike manner by the King was equally

[4] This celebrated tumult, generally known in Spain as 'el Motin de Aranjuez', and sometimes as 'el Motin de

Esquilace', occurred on Palm Sunday, 1766. The ostensible reason was an edict of the King (Charles III.)

prohibiting the use of long cloaks and broadbrimmed hats, which had been for long popular in Spain. The

tumult assumed such formidable dimensions that the Walloon Guards were unable to quell it, but two friars,

Padre Osma and Padre Cueva, in some manner were able to stem the confusion. The King and the court were

so much disturbed that they quitted Madrid and went to Aranjuez. There is no proof that the Jesuits had any

[6] Such, at least, several of his letters to the Pope, Clement XII., would seem to indicate. It is not impossible

that the strenuous opposition which the Jesuits gave to the Inquisition may have had something to do with

their expulsion. Some of them went great lengths in their attacks. P. Antonio Vieyra, the celebrated

Portuguese Jesuit, in his 'Rela��o Exactissima, Instructiva, Curioza, Verdadeira, Noticioza do Procedimento

das Inquizi�oes de Portugal' (Em Veneza, 1750), is almost as severe as Protestant writers have been against

the Inquisition. Particularly does he inveigh against the prison system of the Holy Office (pp. 35, chap. i.).

In the last chapter (p. 154), Vieyra calls Saavedra, the founder of the Portuguese Inquisition, a tyrant, and in

recounting his deeds calls him tyranno, cruel, falsario, herege, and ladram (a thief), and finishes by asserting

that the tribunal invented by such a man 'had its roots in hell', and that 'its ministers could not go to heaven'.

[8] Brabo ('Coleccion de Documentos', etc.) says of him, 'speaking of the petty jealousies and intrigues which

the decree of expulsion evoked: 'En medio de tantas contrariedades, crimenes y miserias destaca serena la

figura de Bucareli, no solo llevando a cabo con incansable celo su cometido, si no atendiendo a suplir en la

organizacion religiosa, intelectual y civil los numerosos vacios que dejaba la falta del absorbente y decisivo

[9] 'Ensayo de la Historia Civil del Paraguay', etc., vol. iii., cap. viii., p. 119.

[11] 'Tambien en algunos pueblos hay unas escopetas inglesas muy largas con sus horquillas si se quieren

usar de ellas no son muy pesadas y tienen buen alcance' (Funes, 'Ensayo de la Historia Civil del Paraguay',

[12] There were in the year 1759 throughout the world 271 Jesuit missions, 1,542 religious houses, 61 cattle

farms, 340 residences, 171 seminaries, 1,542 churches, and 22,589 Jesuits, whereof 11,293 were priests. Of

the above houses, missions, and churches, the greater portion were in America (Ferrer del Rio, 'Historia del

Reinado de Carlos III.', Madrid, 1856). In the River Plate and Paraguay there were about 400 Jesuits, of

whom 300 were priests. The other hundred, according to Iba�ez ('Republica Jesuitica'), were 'mostly poor

devils who were in want of food, and came into the Order for a meal.' Iba�ez rarely spoke the truth, not even

when it would have been expedient to do so; and certainly amongst these 'poor devils' could not have been

included Asperger, the writer on Indian medicines, and other distinguished men who inhabited the

[13] Dean Funes, 'Ensayo de la Historia Civil', etc., vol. iii., book v., cap. ix.

[14] The fine library was dispersed, and many priceless MSS. treating of the discovery and conquest, and of

expeditions by the Jesuits amongst tribes of Indians now extinct, were lost. Nothing seems to have been

preserved except matter which the dispersers thought might prove incriminating to the Jesuits. It is a

wellknown principle to judge and condemn a man, and then to search for evidence against him. The books

were kept in a place known as La Granja de Santa Catalina, and a man of letters, Dr. Don Antonio Aldao, was

charged to catalogue and remit them to the capital. Dean Funes says (book v., cap. ix., p. 156) that he

complied with his instructions ('verific�la felizmente y con arreglo a sus instrucciones'), but, anyhow, most of

the books were lost. It is a common phrase amongst doctors, 'The operation was entirely successful, but the

patient unfortunately succumbed.' Amongst the books was the celebrated 'Monita Secreta', used by Iba�ez in

[15] Dean Funes ('Ensayo de la Historia Civil', vol. iii., cap. viii.) seems to have gauged the feelings of the

Governor when he says: 'Tembl� de susto Bucareli considerando en riesgo una conquista, que debia aumentar

su gloria y su fortuna.' 'Su fortuna' is delicious, and shows your true conqueror's melancholy.

[16] The Tebicuari forms the northern boundary between the territory of Misiones and the rest of Paraguay. It

is a large river, and in my time (18721875) was bridgeless, and had to be crossed in canoes, whilst the

[17] Yapey� was the largest of all the missions. The name signifies a chisel in Guaran�.

[18] Bucareli, in a letter to El Conde de Aranda (Brabo, 'Coleccion de Documentos relativos � la Expulsion

de los Jesuitas', Madrid, 1872), says in reference to the perils by which he imagined himself surrounded: 'El

misero diminuto estado de la tropa, por el atrasode sus pagas y la falta que encontr� de caudales en estas

[19] This war, undertaken by a fool (Lopez) against enormous odds, served to show what a people even when

in the wrong, and in a bad cause, can do when it believes itself to be fighting for national liberty. As a matter

of fact, Paraguayan liberty was not threatened for an instant, and Lopez declared war against both Brazil and

the Argentine Republic out of mere ambition to be a second Napoleon. His solitary qualifications for the

character were that, like his prototype, he was fat and loved women. The war commenced in 1865 and

finished in 1870, and left the country almost a desert. So lonely was it, that I have often in those days seen

tigers calmly walk across a road in midday, and a shout or a pistolshot but little quickened their

[20] Capilla was the name given in Paraguay to some of the smaller villages which had a chapel, the chapel

[21] El V. P. Jos� Pignatelli, in his 'La Compa�ia de Jesus en su Extincion y Restablecimento', says that the

[22] 'Carta del Gobernador de Buenos Ayres (Bucareli) al Comte de Aranda'. Brabo, 'Coleccion de

Documentos Relativos a la Expulsion de los Jesuitos', p. 8, Madrid, 1872: 'Les hice vestir a la Espa�ola

[23] Brabo, 'Coleccion de Documentos', etc., p. 101. The letter is headed 'I. H. T., Ore Rey Nitu Don Carlos

[25] Ceremonies, no doubt, have their uses in enslaving mankind. A courtier once said to a Spanish King,

[26] Letter to Aranda: Brabo, 'Coleccion de Documentos', p. 196: 'Y las mujeres en tal extremo, que es

[28] P. 222: 'Y teniendo presente que por lo que mira a este punto resulta de los informes que solo hablan

estos Indios su idioma natural, pero que no es prohibicion de los PP. Jesuitos, sino por el amor que tienen a su

nativo lenguage pues en cada uno de los pueblos han establecido esculas de leer y escriber en lengua

espa�ola, y que por este motivo se encuentra un numero grande de Indios muy habiles en escribir (dos de

ellos etan copiando hora esto que yo escribo y de mejor letra que la mia).' Also pp. 223225, etc.

[30] 'Y sobre todo, fuera de la America y libre de Secretaria y Consejo de Indias.' Brabo, 'Coleccion de

[32] The alcaldes of Indian villages usually have a long cane with a silver head, like those formerly carried by

footmen, as a badge of their office. In remote places I have seen them, with their canes in their hands, a

battered tall hat upon their heads, a linen jacket and trousers, and barefooted, riding on an ox, and thought

that they served to maintain the majesty of the law quite as well as if they had had stuff gowns, horsehair

[33] Vol. iii., book v., cap. viii., p. 130 ('Ensayo de la Historia Civil del Paraguay', etc.): 'Los Caciques y

corregidores que acompa�aban a Bucareli, habian sido alhagados por todos los artificios de sugestion. Esto �

la verdad, no era mas que coronar las victimas, que se destinaban al sacrificio.'

[36] Brabo, 'Coleccion de Documentos', p. 320: 'Y porque estoy informado que muchos Indios de los que se

habian ausentado con las tropas Portuguesas, y que han residido por gran tiempo en el Rio Pardo, Viamont, y

otras partes se han restituido a sus pueblos, ciudaran . . . de que todos estos con sus families seran traslados a

los mas interiores o distantes de aquellas fronteras por no ser conveniente se mantengan en ellas o sus

inmediaciones, y asi en lo sucesivo lo ejecutaran . . . con los Indios que se restituyan, sin dejar alguno, para

[37] 'No conviene dejarles una entera libertad, que seria por extremo fatal y prejudicial � sus intereses pues la

[38] Brabo, 'Bucareli's Instructions', p. 327: 'Que el commercio de los espa�oles ha de ser libre.'

IT IS THE fashion of some to say that history, of whatever nature, can but be written dispassionately at a

period sufficiently removed from the events of which it treats to have allowed the heat of passion to

evaporate. This is as false as almost every other dictum which men take on trust, forgetting that to have

passed into the proverbial stage a saying must have been foolish at the start, in order that it should have got

The heat of passion never evaporates in regard to events which at the epoch of their acting caused great

controversies. From writings of contemporaries the coolestheaded take a bias, in the same way that men

unconsciously pass on the microbes of disease to their best friends. Only from inventories and rolls of court,

State Papers and the like is it possible to get unbiassed matter, and even then figures, those chief deceivers of

mankind, can be well cooked for or against, according to the bias of the man who draws them up. Still, when

they are drawn up by enemies, they often quite unwittingly show out the truth. In a letter dated October 30,

1768, Bucareli sends a list to Aranda of the effects of many of the Jesuits taken from Paraguay and sent by

him to Spain. The list itself speaks volumes in defence of the Jesuits in Paraguay. Whatever may have been

their faults, the Governor himself (or even Charles III.) could not have charged upon the captured priests that

they had got together a large stock of property during their mission life. [1] The first upon the list, P. Pedro

Zabaleta, took ten shirts, two pillowcases, two sheets, three pockethandkerchiefs, two pairs of shoes, two

pairs of socks, and a pound and a half of snuff. The others were in general less well set up with shirts, [2]

some few had cloaks, and one (P. Sigismundo Griera) a nightcap; but all of them had their snuff, the only

relic of their luxurious mission life. Manuel Vergara, their Provincial, testifies in a paper sent with the list

that most of the clothes were taken from the common stock, and all the snuff. What sort of treatment they

endured upon their passage in the two frigates San Fernando and San Nicolas is quite unknown, but certainly

their luggage could not have been in the way; and for their snuff, no doubt they husbanded it with care during

the long two months, which in those days was thought a record run. [3] In the missions which they had so

long tended with such care, giving their muddleheaded love to the Indians in their Machiavelian way, all

was confusion in the space of six short months. Dean Funes and Don Feliz de Azara [4] are the only two

contemporary writers who treat of the expulsion of the Jesuits from Paraguay outside the official world. The

Dean, a man of the old school, was kindly and humane, well educated, and, having been brought up in

Tucuman amongst an Indian population, looked on the Indians in a kindly way as fellowcreatures, though

differing in essential points from races which had been for centuries exposed to civilization and its effects.

His description of the Indians has for veracity and observation not often been surpassed. 'Those natives [5]

(he says) are of a pale colour, well made, and well set up. Their talent and capacity are capable of much

advancement. Though they lack invention in themselves, yet are they excellent in imitation. Idleness seems

natural to them, although it may be more the effect of habit than of temperament; their inclination towards

acquiring knowledge is decided, and novelty has its full effect upon their minds. Ambitious of command,

they acquit themselves with honour in the positions to which they may attain. Eloquence is held amongst

them in the first place, and avarice in no respect degrades their minds. An injurious word offends them more

than punishments, which they solicit rather than undergo the former outrage. Incontinency in their women

they look upon but with indifference, and even husbands are little sensible to acts of infidelity. Conjugal love

has but slight influence upon the treatment which they give their wives. Fathers of families care for their sons

but little. The serenity of mind of all these Indians in the midst of the greatest troubles is without equal in the

No one who knows the Indians but must confess that Dean Funes had made a study of their character deeper

than is his own. Azara, on the other hand, was a man of science; his books upon the birds and quadrupeds of

Paraguay still hold the field, and are esteemed for curious and minute observation and accuracy as to

scientific facts. The man himself was an extremely able writer, a captain in the Spanish navy, and well

educated. For twenty years he served in Paraguay and in the River Plate, with credit to himself and profit to

the country which he served. Educated as he was in the school of the Encyclopaedists, amongst the strictest

of the pharisees of Liberalism, to him the very name of Jesuit was anathema. After the fashion of his kind, he

seemed unable to distinguish between the scheming Jesuits at European courts and the simple and

hardworking missionaries in Paraguay. All were anathema, and therefore all their system was repugnant to

him; and though a kindly man, as is set forth abundantly in all his works, he never paused to think that there

could be a difference between his ideal free Liberal citizen, voting and exercising all his right of citizenship

in a free commonwealth, after the fashion of a dormouse freely exercising his natural functions in the receiver

Freedom to him, as it has been to many theorists, was an abstract thing, possessing which a man, even though

starving, must in its mere possession find true happiness. He never paused to inquire, as even Bucareli did, if

the mission Indians could hold their own under free competition with the 'sagacity' of the surrounding

Spanish settlers. Therefore he is the authority whom Liberals always quote against the system of the Jesuits.

When he inveighs against their semicommunism, the modern Liberal claps his hands, and sees a kindred

Daniel come to judgment, as he would do today if in Damaraland the Germans set up a Socialistic

settlement amongst the negro tribes, and some Liberal economist denounced it with an oath. Azara quite

forgets that, as Dean Funes says, the 'sentiment of property was very weak amongst the Indians,' and that

their minds were 'not degraded by the vice of avarice.' Still, Azara was an honest mana keen observer and

impartial, as far as his upbringing and the tenets he had imbibed in youth permitted him to be. Upon the

question of the Jesuits he was entirely prejudiced, although few have stood up more stoutly to condemn the

faulty system which the Spaniards pursued towards the Indians in both Americas. But on account of his

political proclivities Azara is quite silent as to the state into which the missions fell after the Jesuits had been

expelled. No doubt he thought that, once their faulty system was removed, the Indians would soon become

what he judged civilized, and hold their own with those around them, though of another race and blood.

Funes, upon the contrary, fully exposes all the rapacity and incompetence of the new shepherds left by

'Ignorant [6] of Guaran�, and without patience to acquire it, confusion reigned in the missions as in a tower of

Babel,' and he goes on to say 'an imperious tone of order was substituted for the paternal manner (of the

Jesuits), and as a deaf man who cannot hear has to be taught by blows, that was the teaching they (the

Indians) had to bear.' Shortly, he says, 'a wall of hatred and contempt began to rise between the Indians and

their masters; and the priests, who by the virtue of their office ought to have been the ministers of peace,

being without influence to command . . . and not entirely irreproachable in their ministry . . . added

Bucareli, as soon as he knew what was going on, advised that all the priests appointed by himself should be

replaced by others. This accordingly was done, but it was even then too late: the missions went from bad to

worse; of the vast quantities of cattle few were left; the priests followed the example of their prototypes Hofni

and Phineas, went about armed, took Indian mistresses, and neglected all religious duties, treating the Indians

after the fashion of the Spaniards in the settlements. Thus the Arcadian life, which had subsisted more than

The vast estancias, in which at the expulsion more than a million head of cattle pastured, [7] were but bare

plains, in which the cattle that were left had all run wild or perished from neglect. Wild beasts roamed round

the outskirts of the halfdeserted towns. A dense low scrub of yatais and of palmettos invaded all the

pasturelands, and in the erstwhile cultivated fields rank weeds sprang up, and choked the crops which in the

Jesuits' times had made the mission territories the most productive of the American possessions of the

Spanish crown. The churches were unserved, and in the evening air no more the hymns resounded, nor did

the long whiterobed processions headed by a cross pass to the fields to peaceful labour, marshalled by their

priests. The fruittrees round the missions were either all cut down for firewood or had degenerated, and the

plantations of the Ilex Paraguayensis, [8] from which they made their yerba, which had been brought from the

The Indian population had almost disappeared within the space of eightandtwenty years. [9] The Guaran�s

collected from the woods with so much effort to the missionary, then guided down the Paran� by the most

noble and selfsacrificing of their priests, Ruiz Montoya, and after that redeemed with blood from the fierce

Mameluco bands, had shrunk away before the baneful breath of unaccustomed contact with the civilizing

The simple ceremonious, if perhaps futile, missionlife had withered up at the first touch of vivifying

competitionthat competition which has made the whole world gray, reducing everything and everyone to

The selfcreated goddess Progress was justified by works, and all the land left barren, waiting the time when

factories shall pollute its sky, and render miserable the European emigrants, who, flying from their slavery at

home, shall have found it waiting for them in their new paradise beyond the seas.

The world, it would appear, is a vast classroom, and its Creator but a professor of political economy,

apparently unable to carry out his theories with effect. Therefore, to us, the Western Europeans, he has turned

for help, and upon us devolved the task of extirpating all those peoples upon whom he tried his 'prentice

hand. On us he laid injunctions to increase at home, and to the happier portions of the world to carry death

Let those made cruel by the want of sympathy with men that the mere poring over books so often

superinduces in the mind protest when judging of the Jesuits in Paraguay against the outrage done to their

It has been nobly said [10] 'that the extinction of the smallest animal is a far greater loss than if the works of

all the Greeks had perished.' How much the greater loss that of a type of man such as the Indians, whom the

semicommunistic Jesuit government successfully preserved, sheltering them from the deathdealing breath

There are those, no doubt, who think that a tree brought from the tropics should be planted out at home, to

take its chance of life in the keen winter of the north, in holy competition with the ash and oak; and if it dies,

there are still pines enough, with stores of dogwood, thickets of elder, and a wilderness of junipers. They may

be right; but, after all, that which has felt the tropic sun is for the tropics, and to grow under the tantalizing

sunshine of the north, which lights but does not warm, it must have glass, and shelter from the cold.

But of aforethought to deliberately transplant our fogs and chilling atmosphere, and so to nip and kill plants

which crave only the sun to live, that is a crime against humanity; a crime posterity with execration will one

day taunt us with, and hold us up to execration, as we today in our hypocrisy piously curse the memories of

In the eternal warfare between those who think that progresswhich to them means tramways and electric

lightis preferable to a quiet life of futile happiness of mind there is scant truce, so that my readers have to

take their choice whether to side with Funes or Azara in judging of the Jesuits' rule in Paraguay. There is no

middle course between the old and new; no haltingplace; no chink in which imagination can drive in its nail

to stop the wheels of time; therefore, no doubt, the Jesuit commonwealth was doomed to disappear. But for

myself, I am glad that fiveandtwenty years ago I saw the Indians who still lingered about the ruined

mission towns, mumbling their maimed rites when the Angelus at eventide awoke the echoes of the

encroaching woods, whilst screeching crowds of parrots and macaws hovered around the datepalms which

in the plaza reared their slender heads, silent memorials of the departed Jesuits' rule.

Indians and Jesuits are gone from Paraguay, the Indians to that Trapalanda which is their appointed place;

and for the Jesuits, they are forgotten, except by those who dive into old chronicles, or who write books,

proposing something and concluding nothing, or by travellers, who, wandering in the Tarumensian woods,

[1] The Paraguayan Jesuits were allowed to take away all their personal property, and it appears that they did

[2] Cayetano Ibarguen had only two, P. Lorenzo Balda three, and so on (Brabo, 'Coleccion de Documentos',

[3] So late as 1818 Rengger, in his 'Essai Historique sur la R�volution du Paraguay', etc., talks of arriving in

Buenos Ayres 'apr�s un court trajet de soixante jours.' From thence to Corrientes he took seven weeks, but

[4] Funes, 'Ensayo Critico de la Historia Civil del Paraguay', etc.; Don Feliz de Azara, 'Descripcion y Historia

del Paraguay', etc.; and also 'Memorias sobre el estado rural del Rio de la Plata en 1801'.

[8] Demersay ('Histoire du Paraguay'), writing in 1847, says of the mission of La Cruz he saw a few trees still